Pilotage and Dead Reckoning

Objective

Upon completion of this lesson, the student will be able to plan and execute a cross-country flight using pilotage and dead reckoning navigation techniques, demonstrating compliance with FAA-S-ACS-15 Area of Operation VII, Task A. The student will prepare a flight log, navigate using visual landmarks and pre-computed headings, maintain altitude within ±200 feet and heading within ±15°, verify position within three nautical miles of planned route, arrive at checkpoints within five minutes of ETA, and make appropriate corrections for wind and performance variations.

Content

Pilotage and Dead Reckoning Navigation (PH.VII.A.K1)

Pilotage is navigation by visual reference to landmarks. Think of it as flying from point to point using visible features like roads, rivers, towns, and towers. Dead reckoning is navigation by computing direction and distance from a known position. Combined, these methods provide redundant navigation capability essential for helicopter operations where GPS may be unreliable or unavailable.

Per 14 CFR 91.103, pilots must become familiar with all available information concerning the flight, including weather, fuel requirements, alternatives available, and known traffic delays. For cross-country flights, this includes navigation planning using current sectional charts.

Magnetic Compass Errors (PH.VII.A.K2)

The magnetic compass in helicopters is subject to several errors that affect navigation accuracy:

Variation: The angular difference between true north and magnetic north, varies by geographic location and changes over time. Found on sectional charts as isogonic lines.

Deviation: Error caused by metal and electrical equipment in the aircraft. Unique to each helicopter and shown on the compass correction card.

Magnetic Dip Errors:

• Acceleration Error: On east-west headings, compass leads during acceleration, lags during deceleration (ANDS: Accelerate North, Decelerate South)
• Turning Error: When turning from north, compass initially turns opposite; when turning from south, compass leads the turn (UNOS: Undershoot North, Overshoot South)

In turbulent conditions common to helicopter operations, these errors become more pronounced due to constant acceleration changes.

Topography (PH.VII.A.K3)

Understanding terrain features is critical for helicopter navigation. Key topographic elements include:

• Relief: Elevation differences shown by contour lines on sectional charts
• Prominent features: Mountains, ridges, valleys useful as checkpoints
• Man-made features: Towers, airports, cities, highways
• Water features: Lakes, rivers, coastlines providing distinctive landmarks

Helicopters can follow terrain contours more closely than fixed-wing aircraft, making topographic navigation extremely effective. However, this also increases collision risk with obstacles.

Navigation Planning Elements

Route Selection (PH.VII.A.K4a)

Select routes considering:

• Prominent checkpoints every 10-15 miles
• Obstacle clearance (14 CFR 91.119 minimum safe altitudes)
• Airport locations for emergency landing
• Restricted and prohibited areas (14 CFR Part 93)
• Class B, C, and D airspace boundaries

Altitude Selection (PH.VII.A.K4b)

Choose altitudes based on:

• Terrain clearance requirements
• Airspace restrictions
• Weather conditions
• Performance capabilities
• Emergency landing considerations

Checkpoint Selection (PH.VII.A.K4c)

Effective checkpoints are:

• Easily identifiable from planned altitude
• Positioned to confirm track accuracy
• Spaced appropriately for navigation timing
• Distinctive enough to avoid confusion

Navigation Calculations

Determining Heading, Speed, and Course (PH.VII.A.K5a)

• True Course: Direction from departure to destination measured on chart
• Magnetic Course: True course corrected for variation
• Compass Heading: Magnetic course corrected for deviation and wind

Wind Correction Angle (PH.VII.A.K5b)

The angular difference between heading and track needed to maintain desired course. Calculate using:

• Wind triangle method
• Electronic flight computer
• Mental approximation (1° per 60 knots crosswind component)

Time, Speed, and Distance Calculations (PH.VII.A.K5c)

Basic formulas:

• Distance = Groundspeed × Time
• Time = Distance ÷ Groundspeed
• Groundspeed = Distance ÷ Time

Account for wind effect on groundspeed when determining arrival times.

True Airspeed and Density Altitude (PH.VII.A.K5d)

• Indicated Airspeed: What the airspeed indicator shows
• True Airspeed: Actual speed through the air mass
• Density Altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature

Higher density altitude reduces helicopter performance, affecting climb rate, service ceiling, and fuel consumption.

Power Setting Selection (PH.VII.A.K6)

Select cruise power settings considering:

• Manufacturer’s recommended settings for cruise flight
• Fuel consumption requirements
• Performance needed for terrain clearance
• Temperature limitations
• Autorotation capabilities at selected altitude

Reference FAA-H-8083-21B Helicopter Flying Handbook for specific performance planning.

Planned vs. Actual Results (PH.VII.A.K7)

Monitor and record differences between planned and actual:

• Groundspeed variations due to winds aloft
• Fuel consumption changes
• Time variations at checkpoints
• Heading corrections needed

Make en route corrections to maintain schedule and fuel reserves.

Risk Management

Collision Hazards (PH.VII.A.R1)

• Maintain vigilant visual scanning, especially in terminal areas
• Use proper communication procedures at non-towered airports
• Be aware of bird activity near water and food sources
• Avoid flying directly over congested areas when possible
• Monitor for parachute jumping activities and temporary flight restrictions

Distractions and Situational Awareness (PH.VII.A.R2)

• Prioritize flight path control over navigation tasks
• Use systematic scan patterns to maintain awareness
• Recognize early signs of disorientation or confusion
• Establish clear division of attention between navigation and aircraft control
• Brief passengers on their role in looking for traffic

Fuel/Power Consumption (PH.VII.A.R3)

• Monitor fuel consumption against planned burn rates
• Account for headwinds increasing flight time
• Consider power requirements for terrain clearance
• Plan fuel reserves per 14 CFR 91.151 (day) or 91.151 (night)
• Have alternate destinations if fuel becomes critical

Schedule

Equipment

• Current sectional charts for training area
• FAA-H-8083-21B Helicopter Flying Handbook
• FAA-H-8083-25B Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
• Electronic or mechanical flight computer (E6B)
• Navigation plotter
• Flight log forms
• Helicopter with current compass correction card
• Current weather information
• Fuel consumption data for training helicopter

Instructor Actions

1. Brief the student on pilotage and dead reckoning concepts, emphasizing their importance when electronic navigation fails
2. Demonstrate proper chart preparation including course measurement, checkpoint identification, and distance measurement using plotter
3. Show wind triangle construction using flight computer, explaining how crosswind affects heading and groundspeed
4. Guide student through flight log preparation, demonstrating calculation of headings, times, and fuel requirements
5. Review magnetic compass errors specific to helicopters, using aircraft compass to demonstrate deviation and discuss acceleration/turning errors
6. Brief risk management items, emphasizing collision avoidance and maintaining situational awareness during navigation tasks
7. During flight, demonstrate proper navigation scan pattern: checkpoint identification, time/distance verification, heading control
8. Show correction techniques when off course, including how to determine drift angle and new heading to regain track
9. Demonstrate fuel management monitoring and decision-making for route alterations if needed
10. Coach student in maintaining altitude and heading while performing navigation tasks
11. Debrief actual performance versus planned calculations, analyzing sources of error and correction techniques

Student Actions

1. Prepare sectional chart by plotting complete route with course lines and checkpoint marks
2. Calculate true course, magnetic course, and compass headings for each leg using current variation and deviation
3. Determine distances, estimated times, and fuel requirements for complete flight
4. Complete detailed flight log with all planning calculations
5. Identify potential checkpoints and select most suitable ones based on visibility and uniqueness criteria
6. During flight, navigate using pilotage techniques while maintaining assigned altitude ±200 feet and heading ±15°
7. Identify checkpoints as planned and record actual arrival times
8. Calculate actual groundspeed and compare with planned speeds
9. Make en route corrections for wind drift and navigation errors
10. Maintain continuous position awareness and verify location within 3 nautical miles of planned route
11. Provide revised destination estimates based on actual performance
12. Record differences between planned and actual results for post-flight analysis

Completion Standards

The student demonstrates satisfactory performance when able to:

• Complete flight log with accurate calculations per FAA-S-ACS-15 PH.VII.A.S1
• Navigate using visual landmarks and maintain track awareness per FAA-S-ACS-15 PH.VII.A.S2
• Follow pre-computed navigation plan using dead reckoning techniques per FAA-S-ACS-15 PH.VII.A.S3
• Use magnetic compass effectively including proper interpretation during turns per FAA-S-ACS-15 PH.VII.A.S4
• Verify and maintain position within three nautical miles of planned route per FAA-S-ACS-15 PH.VII.A.S5
• Document and correct differences between planned and actual navigation results per FAA-S-ACS-15 PH.VII.A.S6
• Arrive at en route checkpoints within five minutes of planned or revised ETA and provide accurate destination estimates per FAA-S-ACS-15 PH.VII.A.S7
• Maintain altitude within ±200 feet and heading within ±15° throughout the navigation flight per FAA-S-ACS-15 PH.VII.A.S8
• Demonstrate understanding of magnetic compass errors and their effects on helicopter navigation
• Apply appropriate risk management techniques for collision avoidance, situational awareness, and fuel management
• Show competency in chart reading, checkpoint identification, and position verification using pilotage techniques