Vertical Takeoff and Landing

Objective

Upon completion of this lesson, the student will demonstrate proficiency in performing vertical takeoffs and landings in accordance with FAA-S-ACS-15 Area of Operation IV, Task A. The student will identify and explain the elements of vertical takeoffs and landings, demonstrate understanding of environmental and aircraft factors affecting performance, recognize and mitigate risks associated with hovering operations, and perform vertical takeoffs and landings within ACS standards in various wind conditions.

Content

Elements of Vertical Takeoff and Landing

Vertical Takeoff to a Hover:

• Collective input to increase main rotor disc angle of attack and generate lift
• Simultaneous pedal input to counteract increased torque effect
• Cyclic input for attitude and position control
• Power requirement increases dramatically from ground effect to out-of-ground-effect (OGE)
• Smooth, coordinated control inputs prevent oscillations and maintain aircraft control

Landing from a Hover:

• Gradual collective reduction to control rate of descent
• Corresponding pedal input to maintain heading as torque decreases
• Cyclic input for precise positioning over landing area
• Ground effect cushions final touchdown when performed correctly
• Smooth touchdown prevents hard landings and dynamic rollover

Effect of Wind on Flight Control Inputs

Headwind Conditions:

• Increased relative wind over main rotor disc improves efficiency
• Reduced power requirement for same hover performance
• Cyclic input required aft of neutral to maintain position
• Natural weathervaning tendency assists directional control

Crosswind Conditions:

• Cyclic input into wind required to prevent lateral drift
• Increased power requirement due to rotor disc inefficiency
• Pedal input may be required to maintain heading against weathervaning
• Bank angle toward wind increases as wind velocity increases

Tailwind Conditions:

• Decreased main rotor efficiency requires increased power
• Forward cyclic input required to prevent aft drift
• Potential for vortex ring state if descent rate exceeds capability
• Most challenging wind condition for hover operations

Weight and Balance and Center of Gravity Effects

Weight Effects:

• Higher gross weight requires more power for same hover performance
• Increased inertia makes control inputs less responsive
• Greater potential for exceeding power available, especially OGE
• More pronounced ground effect benefits at higher weights

Center of Gravity Effects:

• Forward CG requires aft cyclic trim, reducing aft cyclic authority
• Aft CG requires forward cyclic trim, reducing forward cyclic authority
• Lateral CG shifts affect lateral cyclic requirements and control margins
• CG outside limits can result in insufficient control authority

14 CFR 91.9 requires compliance with weight and balance limitations specified in the approved Flight Manual or equivalent.

Ground Effect

Physical Principles:

• Rotor downwash interaction with ground surface increases efficiency
• Ground effect most pronounced at heights less than one rotor diameter
• Reduces induced drag and power requirements by up to 20%
• Creates virtual increase in rotor disc angle of attack

Operational Considerations:

• Smooth, hard surfaces provide maximum ground effect benefit
• Rough terrain, vegetation, or obstacles reduce ground effect
• Ground effect diminishes rapidly with altitude increase
• Power required curve shows significant increase when leaving ground effect

Risk Management Items

Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness (LTE):

• Critical azimuth conditions: 120° to 240° relative wind
• Weathercock stability region most dangerous (210° to 330°)
• Prevention: avoid critical azimuths, maintain forward airspeed when possible
• Recognition: uncommanded yaw despite pedal input
• Recovery: lower collective, apply forward cyclic, land immediately
• 14 CFR 91.13 prohibits careless or reckless operation that endangers persons or property

Dynamic Rollover:

• Critical angle approximately 13-15° for most helicopters
• Contributing factors: lateral CG, crosswind, slope, skid contact
• Prevention: gentle control inputs, avoid abrupt lateral cyclic
• Recognition: increasing bank angle despite corrective input
• Recovery: immediately lower collective, neutralize cyclic when upright

Ground Resonance:

• Occurs when rotor frequency matches fuselage frequency
• Most common on helicopters with articulated main rotors
• Prevention: avoid prolonged ground contact with rotors turning
• Recognition: violent vibration through aircraft structure
• Recovery: immediately lift off or completely land and reduce RPM

Powerplant Failure During Hover:

• Immediate collective reduction to enter autorotation
• Use stored rotor inertia for cushioned landing
• Height-velocity diagram defines safe operating parameters
• Practice emergency procedures in safe areas only
• 14 CFR 91.119 establishes minimum safe altitudes over congested areas

Schedule

Equipment

Required References:

• FAA-H-8083-21B Helicopter Flying Handbook
• FAA-S-ACS-15 Private Pilot Helicopter ACS
• FAA-H-8083-25 Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
• Aircraft-specific Flight Manual/POH
• 14 CFR Parts 61, 91

Materials and Visual Aids:

• Helicopter configured for training (dual controls)
• Headsets and intercom system
• Sectional chart for local area
• Wind direction indicators (windsock, smoke)
• Designated hover reference points
• Height-velocity diagram for aircraft type

Safety Equipment:

• First aid kit accessible
• Fire extinguisher if required
• Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) operational

Instructor Actions

1. Conduct pre-flight briefing covering lesson objectives, wind conditions, and safety considerations including emergency procedures for power failure during hover operations.

2. Demonstrate proper aircraft inspection with emphasis on flight controls, engine, and rotor system components critical for hovering operations.

3. Review weight and balance calculations using actual aircraft loading and explain effects of CG position on control requirements and hover performance.

4. Explain ground effect principles using rotor disc visualization and power requirement curves, emphasizing the relationship between height and efficiency.

5. Demonstrate wind effect assessment using visual wind indicators and explain how different wind directions affect control inputs and power requirements.

6. Conduct engine start and hover checks per manufacturer’s checklist, emphasizing Nr RPM limits and control responsiveness verification.

7. Demonstrate vertical takeoff sequence: smooth collective increase, coordinating pedals for torque, cyclic for position control, explaining power requirements through ground effect transition.

8. Show proper hovering technique at recommended altitude, demonstrating small control inputs for position maintenance and heading control within ACS standards.

9. Demonstrate landing technique with gradual collective reduction, maintaining position over designated point, coordinating pedals as torque decreases, achieving soft touchdown.

10. Practice emergency procedures including simulated power failure from hover at safe altitude, emphasizing immediate collective reduction and autorotation entry.

11. Guide student practice providing verbal coaching for control coordination, power management, and position control while monitoring for risk factors.

12. Observe student performance noting adherence to ACS standards for altitude, position, and heading control while providing corrective guidance as needed.

13. Conduct performance debrief reviewing student performance against ACS standards and identifying areas for continued practice.

Student Actions

Preparation Phase:

• Complete aircraft pre-flight inspection using approved checklist
• Calculate weight and balance within approved limits
• Review emergency procedures for power failure during hover
• Assess wind conditions and plan control inputs accordingly

Ground Operations:

• Perform engine start procedures per manufacturer’s checklist
• Complete hover checks verifying control responsiveness and Nr RPM
• Demonstrate understanding of risk factors and mitigation strategies

Flight Operations:

• Execute vertical takeoffs using coordinated control inputs maintaining Nr RPM within normal limits
• Achieve and maintain recommended hovering altitude ±5 feet (or ±1/2 altitude if within 10 feet of surface)
• Maintain position within 4 feet of designated point with no aft movement
• Maintain specified heading ±10°
• Perform vertical landings touching down within 4 feet of designated point
• Demonstrate proficiency in headwind, crosswind, and tailwind conditions
• Execute proper emergency procedures if simulated power failure occurs

Communication:

• Make appropriate radio calls as required by local procedures
• Comply with ATC instructions and clearances
• Communicate with instructor regarding aircraft performance and control difficulties

Risk Management:

• Identify conditions conducive to LTE, dynamic rollover, and ground resonance
• Demonstrate appropriate responses to simulated emergency scenarios
• Maintain awareness of height-velocity limitations during hover operations

Completion Standards

The lesson is complete when the student demonstrates proficiency in vertical takeoffs and landings in accordance with FAA-S-ACS-15 Area of Operation IV, Task A:

Knowledge Standards:

• Explains elements of vertical takeoff and landing procedures including power requirements and control coordination
• Describes effects of headwind, crosswind, and tailwind on control inputs and aircraft performance
• Explains weight and balance effects on hover performance and control requirements
• Describes ground effect principles and operational applications

Risk Management Standards:

• Identifies conditions and scenarios that could lead to LTE, dynamic rollover, ground resonance, and power failure risks
• Demonstrates appropriate risk mitigation strategies and emergency procedures
• Shows awareness of height-velocity limitations and operational considerations

Skill Standards (FAA-S-ACS-15 PH.IV.A):

• Completes appropriate checklists without prompting
• Maintains powerplant and Nr speed within normal operating limits throughout maneuvers
• Ascends to and maintains recommended hovering altitude ±5 feet (±1/2 altitude if within 10 feet of surface)
• Maintains position within 4 feet of designated reference point with no aft movement during hover
• Descends vertically and touches down within 4 feet of designated touchdown point
• Maintains specified heading ±10° throughout all phases of flight
• Demonstrates proficiency in headwind, crosswind, and tailwind conditions without drift
• Makes appropriate radio calls and complies with ATC instructions as applicable

Evaluation Criteria: Student must demonstrate consistent performance meeting all ACS standards through multiple repetitions in varying wind conditions without requiring instructor intervention for safety or standard compliance.