3G Heli Prep ← 3GHeliPrep.com
← Commercial lesson plans
CH.X.D ground lesson 60–90 minutes

Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Emergency Operations · Task Task D. Systems and Equipment Malfunctions

Completion Standards

Student demonstrates knowledge of all CH.X.D items to ACS standards without reference to materials. Risk management items correctly identified. All skill elements performed to commercial ACS tolerances.

Objective

By the end of this lesson, the commercial helicopter pilot applicant will demonstrate the ability to recognize, analyze, and correctly respond to at least three different systems and equipment malfunctions specific to the helicopter being flown, completing appropriate checklists and emergency procedures while maintaining aircraft control within commercial pilot standards per ACS CH.X.D. The applicant will explain the causes, symptoms, and remedies for electrical malfunctions, flight instrument failures, pitot-static system malfunctions, electronic flight deck display failures, landing gear malfunctions (if applicable), inoperative flight controls, hydraulic failures (if applicable), frequency vibrations and their sources, smoke/fire procedures, and other helicopter-specific system failures. The applicant will manage startle response, prioritize tasks effectively, maintain situational awareness, and prevent undesired aircraft states during simulated emergency scenarios.

Content

System and Equipment Malfunctions Overview

As a commercial helicopter pilot, you’re expected to operate at a professional level with thorough knowledge of your aircraft’s systems. Unlike the private pilot who may only need to recognize and respond to emergencies, you must understand the mechanical and electrical principles behind each system failure, predict cascading effects, and make command decisions that protect passengers, crew, and property. Think of systems knowledge as your insurance policy—when one system fails, you need to know instantly what else might be affected and what limitations you’re now operating under.

Electrical System Malfunctions

Causes and Indications:

Immediate Actions:

Considerations for Commercial Operations:

14 CFR Considerations:

Flight Instrument Malfunctions

Common Instrument Failures:

Attitude Indicator:

Heading Indicator:

Altimeter:

Airspeed Indicator:

Vertical Speed Indicator:

Turn Coordinator:

Multi-Instrument Failures:

Pitot-Static System Malfunctions

System Description: The pitot-static system provides ram air pressure (pitot) and ambient static pressure (static ports) to operate three critical instruments: airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator.

Pitot Tube Blockage (drain hole open):

Pitot Tube and Drain Hole Both Blocked:

Static Port Blockage:

Both Systems Blocked:

Electronic Flight Deck Display (EFIS/Glass Cockpit) Malfunctions

For G500H, Garmin Systems, and Similar Installations:

Partial Display Failure:

Complete Primary Flight Display (PFD) Failure:

Multi-Function Display (MFD) Failure:

Complete System Failure:

System Anomalies:

AHRS (Attitude Heading Reference System) Failure:

Landing Gear Malfunctions (Retractable Gear Helicopters)

For Helicopters with Retractable Landing Gear (e.g., some turbine models):

Gear Fails to Extend:

Gear Unsafe Indication:

Asymmetric Gear:

Gear Door Malfunctions:

Inoperative Flight Control/Trim Systems

Cyclic System Malfunctions:

Stiff or Restricted Cyclic:

Cyclic Jam or Lock:

Collective System Malfunctions:

Collective Friction Lock Engaged:

Collective Binding or Restricted:

Throttle Correlation Failure:

Pedal/Anti-Torque System Malfunctions:

Stiff or Heavy Pedals:

Complete Loss of Tail Rotor Control:

Hydraulic System Failures

For Hydraulically-Boosted Flight Control Systems:

Hydraulic Pressure Loss:

Effect on Flight Controls:

Operational Limitations Without Hydraulics:

Hydraulic System Bypass/Cutout:

Dual Hydraulic Systems:

Frequency Vibrations and Affected Components

Understanding vibration frequencies allows you to diagnose which component is causing the vibration and predict what might fail if the vibration continues. Think of vibrations as your helicopter talking to you—each frequency tells a specific story.

Low-Frequency Vibrations (1-per-rotor revolution):

Main Rotor 1/rev:

Tail Rotor 1/rev:

Medium-Frequency Vibrations (Multi-per-revolution):

Main Rotor 2/rev, 3/rev, etc.:

High-Frequency Vibrations:

Engine/Transmission:

Tail Rotor High-Frequency:

Vibration Analysis Flow:

Critical Vibration Scenarios:

Smoke and Fire Emergencies

Smoke or fire in a helicopter is one of the most time-critical emergencies. Unlike airplanes, helicopters have less fuselage volume, materials that burn quickly, and the engine is typically adjacent to the cabin. You must act decisively and immediately.

Types of Fires:

Electrical Fire:

Engine Fire (Ground):

Engine Fire (In Flight):

Cabin Fire:

Smoke Without Fire:

Cargo/Baggage Compartment Fire:

Post-Fire/Smoke Procedures:

Fire Extinguisher Use:

14 CFR 91.513 and 135.155:

Additional System Malfunctions Specific to Helicopter Type

Rotor Brake Malfunctions:

Governor/RPM Control System Failure:

Clutch Malfunctions (Piston Helicopters):

Fuel System Malfunctions:

Pneumatic/Vacuum System Failure:

Pitot Heat Failure:

Anti-Ice/Deice System Failures:

Risk Management for System and Equipment Malfunctions

Startle Response:

Checklist Usage for System or Equipment Malfunction:

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness, or Disorientation:

Undesired Aircraft State:

Integration with Commercial Operations

As a commercial pilot conducting external load operations, pipeline patrol, aerial tours, or other commercial work:

Schedule

Lesson SegmentDurationContent
Instructor Preparation30 minReview helicopter-specific systems, prepare malfunction scenarios, verify POH/RFM emergency procedures current, prepare simulation setups
Ground Instruction120 minBriefing of all systems malfunctions, causes, symptoms, remedies; review emergency checklists; risk management discussion; vibration frequency recognition; smoke/fire procedures
Pre-Flight Discussion15 minReview flight scenarios to be practiced, memory items, evaluation criteria, safety considerations for simulated emergencies
Flight Operations90 minSimulated malfunctions (minimum 3): electrical failure, pitot-static failure, instrument failures, hydraulic failure (if applicable), governor failure, vibration analysis, smoke/fire procedures, emergency checklist completion
Post-Flight Debrief30 minPerformance analysis, areas for improvement, additional scenarios discussion, oral examination preparation, completion standards review
Total Time4 hours 45 min

Equipment

Required Reference Materials:

Training Materials:

Required Equipment:

Optional Equipment:

Safety Equipment:

Instructor Actions

  1. Begin ground instruction by establishing the professional standard: “As a commercial pilot, your systems knowledge must be deep enough to troubleshoot in flight, predict what else might fail, and make command decisions. We’re not just learning ‘what to do’—we’re learning why systems fail and how to think through scenarios you’ve never seen before.”

  2. Present electrical system overview using aircraft-specific diagram: Walk through normal electrical system operation (alternator/generator, battery, bus structure, circuit breakers). Explain load capacity, voltage regulation, and essential vs. non-essential equipment. Then methodically describe failure modes: “If your alternator fails at night with a full passenger load, you’ve got roughly 20-30 minutes of battery. What equipment do you shed first? Remember 91.205 required equipment—that’s your priority list. Position lights and anti-collision are required for night flight, but 91.209 lets you turn off anti-collision if you think it’s safer. So you might choose to keep anti-collision off to conserve battery for radios and landing light.”

  3. Demonstrate checklist discipline using aircraft POH/RFM: Show the difference between memory items and checklist items. “Generator failure memory items: reduce electrical load, check circuit breaker. That’s it—you do those immediately. Then you pull out the checklist and confirm: generator switch, ammeter, voltage. Professional pilots don’t skip this step even if they think they know it.” Practice with student until flow is automatic.

  4. Teach flight instrument failure recognition patterns: Use instrument panel diagram or actual panel. Cover attitude indicator with note: “What failed to cause this?” Cover both AI and HI: “Now what system failed?” Cover ASI, altimeter, and VSI: “Pitot-static system. But there’s a difference between pitot only, static only, and both. Let’s work through each scenario.” Draw out the pressure system diagram and show blockage points.

  5. Explain pitot-static system failures with clear graphics: Draw pitot tube and static ports. Show blockage scenarios. “Pitot blocked, drain open: airspeed goes to zero—you’ve lost ram air but static pressure still works for altimeter and VSI. Pitot blocked, drain blocked: now you’ve got trapped pressure acting like an altimeter—in a climb the ASI reads high because the trapped pressure is relatively low compared to decreasing static pressure. Static blocked: altimeter freezes, VSI goes to zero, and ASI reads wrong. Breaking the VSI glass gives you an alternate static source using cabin pressure—slightly low but it works.”

  6. Present EFIS/glass cockpit failure modes specific to training aircraft: If training in glass cockpit helicopter, thoroughly cover reversionary modes. Demonstrate on ground: “If PFD fails, this button activates reversionary mode on the MFD—now all flight instruments display here. If that didn’t work, you’ve got standby instruments here—attitude indicator, altimeter, airspeed. Your scan shifts to these. Let’s practice that scan now before we fly.”

  7. Discuss hydraulic system thoroughly for hydraulic-equipped helicopters: “Loss of hydraulic pressure doesn’t mean loss of control—it means loss of hydraulic assist. You can still fly the helicopter, but control forces go way up. Demo time in flight will show you what that feels like. We’ll practice at altitude first. Key limitations: airspeed below 60 knots typically, no aggressive maneuvering, running landing preferred over hover. Why? Because at high speeds, the aerodynamic forces on the blades are huge, and without hydraulics helping you, you might not have the arm strength to move the cyclic.”

  8. Teach vibration frequency identification using demonstration aids: If possible, play audio recordings of different vibration frequencies or use physical examples. “Low frequency 1/rev feels like a slow beat—whomp, whomp, whomp. That’s main rotor tracking or balance. Medium frequency might be 2/rev or 3/rev—faster pulse. High frequency is a buzz or high-pitched vibration—that’s usually engine, transmission, or tail rotor gearbox. High frequency with rising transmission temp means land NOW. The bearing is failing and you’re about to lose the transmission.”

  9. Conduct detailed smoke and fire briefing with actual fire extinguisher: Show fire extinguisher location in aircraft, demonstrate removal, explain PASS method (Pull, Aim, Squeeze, Sweep). “Electrical fire—master off, vents closed, land immediately. Engine fire in flight—autorotation immediately, fuel off, land now. You never troubleshoot an in-flight fire. You land. Period. Ground fire during start—keep the engine running initially to pull the fire into the combustion chamber, then shut down after 10-15 seconds.” Use case study examples if available.

  10. Present additional helicopter-specific systems relevant to training aircraft: Governor failure (turbine), rotor brake malfunction, clutch slippage (piston), fuel system issues. Tailor this section to the exact helicopter being used for training. “Your helicopter has a rotor brake—it’s only used after engine shutdown to stop the rotors faster. If you try to use it with the engine running, you’ll burn out the brake. There’s usually an interlock preventing that, but if it failed, you’d get severe vibration and you’d enter autorotation immediately.”

  11. Discuss risk management elements in context: “Startle response is real. When that warning horn goes off unexpectedly, your body dumps adrenaline. You might tunnel-vision on the light, forget to fly the helicopter, and lose 200 feet without realizing it. Training helps, but you also need techniques: breathe, verbalize your actions, and force yourself to check altitude and airspeed every few seconds. Commercial pilots maintain composure even with passengers asking ‘What’s that noise?’ You acknowledge—‘I’m checking it now’—and continue with your emergency flow.”

  12. Brief the flight scenarios in detail before departure: “Today we’re going to simulate at least three different malfunctions. I’ll call out the scenario, you’ll analyze it, take appropriate action, and complete the checklist. First scenario will be electrical failure—I’ll point to the ammeter and say ‘You just noticed this.’ You take it from there. Second, we’ll do a partial panel scenario—I’ll cover instruments. Third, your choice of hydraulic failure demo or pitot-static discussion with unusual airspeed indications. We’ll start at altitude, controlled environment. Safety note: I have the flight controls if anything unexpected happens. Some of these simulations are higher workload, so speak your thought process out loud.”

  13. Conduct pre-flight inspection with student, emphasizing systems: “Today we’re focusing on systems, so during preflight, I want you to show me the alternator belt, static ports, pitot tube, hydraulic reservoir if accessible, circuit breakers, and fire extinguisher. This isn’t just checking boxes—when you know where things are, you can troubleshoot better in flight.”

  14. In flight, simulate electrical failure first: At cruise altitude, point to ammeter: “Ammeter just showed a discharge. What’s happening?” Student should respond: analyze electrical failure. Coach through: “Right, alternator failed. What’s your immediate action?” (Reduce electrical load.) “Good—what do you turn off first?” (Non-essential: transponder to standby, exterior lights except anti-collision, radios to standby, GPS to minimum brightness, etc.) “Now what checklist are you using?” (Guide to POH electrical failure checklist.) “How long do you have?” (Battery life estimate.) “Where are you landing?” (Nearest airport vs. continue to destination—decision based on daylight, distance, equipment needs.)

  15. Simulate partial panel scenario: At altitude in smooth air, cover attitude indicator (if safe to do so with removable cover—confirm aircraft control maintained throughout). “Attitude indicator just failed. What’s your scan now?” Student transitions to partial panel using turn coordinator, altimeter, VSI, airspeed, compass. Coach: “Show me a standard rate turn using turn coordinator only… good. Now return to level flight. How do you know you’re level without the attitude indicator? VSI at zero, altimeter steady, airspeed constant. Trim helps. This is exactly what you’d do if your vacuum pump failed.”

  16. Demonstrate pitot-static failure scenarios through discussion and observation: Rather than actually blocking pitot or static systems (unsafe), discuss scenarios while monitoring instruments. “If your pitot tube iced up right now, what would happen to each instrument?” Student explains: ASI zero, altimeter and VSI work. “How would you fly without airspeed?” (Power settings, GPS groundspeed, performance by feel.) If aircraft has alternate static source, demonstrate its use and observe instrument readings change slightly. “See how the altimeter jumped up 50 feet when we opened the alternate static? That’s because cabin pressure is slightly lower than outside static pressure.”

  17. Perform hydraulic failure demonstration (if aircraft equipped): At safe altitude, announce hydraulic failure simulation. If aircraft has cutout switch and it’s appropriate for training: “I’m disabling hydraulics now—you have the controls. Notice how much heavier they are? Try a gentle turn—see how much force that takes? This is what you’d experience with hydraulic failure. Now slow down to 60 knots—feels more manageable, right? That’s why airspeed restrictions exist.” If no hydraulic cutout: discuss forces and limitations based on aircraft manual. Re-engage hydraulics smoothly: “Smoothly transfer to hydraulic-boosted—don’t jerk the controls or you’ll get a big input when assist returns.”

  18. Introduce unusual vibration scenarios: During flight at various power settings and airspeeds, discuss vibrations. If minor vibration exists naturally: “Feel that? That’s normal blade vortex interaction at this airspeed—if it gets worse, we’d avoid this speed range. High frequency vibration that suddenly appears with rising transmission temp would be a land-immediately situation.” Use throttle changes to demonstrate normal RPM variations vs. rough running: “Smooth throttle movement gives smooth power change. If the engine were running rough, you’d feel intermittent power pulses through the controls.”

  19. Practice smoke/fire immediate action procedures verbally: Do not create actual smoke in aircraft. In flight, brief scenario: “Smoke in the cockpit, electrical smell—what are your immediate actions?” Student responds: master off, vents closed initially, land immediately. “Where are you landing?” Student identifies nearest suitable area. “Before you shut down, what’s your plan for evacuating passengers?” Coach through passenger safety considerations. Review fire extinguisher access: “After shutdown, if fire continues, where’s the extinguisher? Show me without unbuckling.”

  20. Simulate governor failure (if turbine helicopter): At altitude, announce: “Governor just failed—you’re in manual throttle.” Student must now manually coordinate throttle with collective changes. “Lower collective—now you need to reduce throttle to prevent overspeed. Raise collective—throttle up to maintain RPM. This is what piston pilots do every flight, but turbine pilots aren’t used to it. That’s why it’s a significant workload increase.”

  21. Conduct at least one more malfunction scenario of evaluator/instructor choice: Select from: instrument failure combination, fuel system issue discussion, additional electrical scenario, or any element not yet covered. Ensure minimum of three distinct malfunction types are practiced per ACS requirements.

  22. Throughout all scenarios, emphasize completion standards: “What’s your altitude right now?” (Student checks—should be within ±100 feet of assigned altitude per commercial standards.) “That checklist—did you actually read through it or did you do it from memory?” (Professional operations require checklist completion, not assumption.) “How’s your situational awareness? Where are you, where’s the nearest airport, what’s your fuel state?” (Maintaining awareness throughout malfunction is critical.)

  23. After each scenario, debrief immediately: “Good job reducing electrical load immediately—that’s the right priority. One coaching point: you forgot to check the circuit breaker first. In some cases, a popped breaker is the cause, and resetting it once might restore the system. After you’ve done that, then shed load. Let’s try another scenario and include that step.”

  24. Return to airport and conduct post-flight briefing: Review all scenarios practiced. “Today you handled electrical failure, partial panel, and hydraulic failure scenarios. Your aircraft control throughout was within commercial standards—altitude within 100 feet, heading within 10 degrees. Checklist usage improved after the first scenario. Areas to work on: speed up your malfunction analysis—when the ammeter shows discharge, you should be thinking ‘electrical system’ within seconds, not after 30 seconds of head-scratching. That comes with practice. You’re meeting the ACS completion standards for this task. Any questions about any of the malfunctions we covered?”

  25. Assign additional study: “For next lesson, review the POH emergency procedures section completely. I want you to be able to brief me on every emergency checklist without looking at the book. Also review the hydraulic system schematic—be able to explain what happens when pressure drops. We’ll do some oral examination questions on systems next time. Think about how each system failure affects your commercial operations—how would you brief passengers, what would you tell the company, how would you document the malfunction?”

Student Actions

  1. Actively participate in ground instruction: Take detailed notes on all systems malfunctions, causes, symptoms, and remedies. Ask clarifying questions about any system not fully understood. Draw diagrams of electrical system, pitot-static system, and hydraulic system (if applicable) in notes for later reference.

  2. Practice checklist flows during ground instruction: Use actual aircraft checklist or POH to rehearse emergency procedures. Practice finding emergency checklists quickly. Memorize critical memory items for electrical failure, engine fire, and smoke/fire emergencies. Verbalize checklist items aloud to develop habit pattern.

  3. Study aircraft-specific systems using POH/RFM: Read systems descriptions for electrical, fuel, hydraulic (if applicable), flight controls, instrumentation. Cross-reference POH emergency procedures section with instructor’s briefing notes. Identify which procedures are memory items vs. checklist items.

  4. Engage in vibration frequency discussion: Listen to descriptions or demonstrations of different vibration types. Visualize which components cause which frequency vibrations. Understand the diagnostic flow: feel vibration → determine frequency → identify likely component → assess severity → decide landing urgency.

  5. Participate in smoke/fire procedure demonstrations: Handle fire extinguisher under instructor supervision. Practice PASS method (pull, aim, squeeze, sweep). Visualize smoke/fire scenarios and verbalize immediate actions. Understand the critical time-sensitive nature of fire emergencies.

  6. Complete pre-flight inspection with systems focus: During preflight, physically locate and inspect electrical system components, static ports, pitot tube, hydraulic reservoir (if accessible), circuit breaker panel, and fire extinguisher. Point out components to instructor demonstrating understanding of their function and location.

  7. Perform in-flight malfunction scenarios as directed: When instructor presents simulated malfunction, immediately analyze the situation, determine appropriate action, take corrective steps, and complete applicable checklist. Maintain aircraft control within commercial pilot standards throughout: altitude ±100 feet, heading ±10 degrees, airspeed ±10 knots.

  8. Demonstrate electrical failure response: When electrical failure simulated, recognize indication (ammeter discharge), immediately reduce electrical load by securing non-essential equipment, check circuit breaker, complete electrical failure checklist, determine battery endurance, select nearest suitable landing area, plan approach considering equipment limitations (night lighting, radio capability).

  9. Execute partial panel flight: When instrument failure simulated (attitude indicator covered), transition immediately to partial panel scan using turn coordinator, altimeter, VSI, airspeed indicator, and magnetic compass. Maintain aircraft control in level flight, demonstrate turn to heading, maintain altitude within ±100 feet throughout. Demonstrate understanding of compass errors (ANDS) during turns.

  10. Respond to pitot-static system failures: Explain effects of pitot blockage vs. static blockage on each instrument (ASI, altimeter, VSI). Describe alternate methods of maintaining control: power settings for known performance, GPS groundspeed corrected for wind, altitude by GPS, use of alternate static source if equipped. Demonstrate knowledge of emergency static source (breaking VSI glass) if primary and alternate static fail.

  11. Demonstrate hydraulic system failure response (if applicable): If hydraulic cutout demonstrated, accept controls and safely manage increased control forces. Maintain aircraft control with heavier forces, demonstrate understanding of airspeed limitations without hydraulics, explain running landing preference. If hydraulic failure only discussed, explain effects, limitations, and procedures thoroughly.

  12. Analyze vibration scenarios: When instructor describes or points out vibrations during flight, identify frequency (low/medium/high), propose likely cause, assess severity, determine appropriate action (land immediately, land as soon as practical, or note for maintenance). Demonstrate understanding that high-frequency vibration with rising transmission temperature requires immediate landing.

  13. Execute smoke/fire procedures: When smoke/fire scenario presented, immediately verbalize and demonstrate (as applicable) emergency actions: electrical fire (master off, vents closed, land immediately), engine fire in flight (autorotation, fuel off, land immediately), cabin fire (fire extinguisher use, vents closed, land immediately). Identify nearest suitable landing area, brief plan for passenger evacuation after landing.

  14. Practice governor failure response (turbine helicopters): When governor failure simulated, transition to manual throttle control. Coordinate throttle movements with collective changes to maintain rotor RPM within limits. Demonstrate increased workload awareness, explain limitations of manual throttle operations, plan approach and landing with reduced maneuvering.

  15. Complete minimum of three distinct malfunction scenarios: Actively perform emergency procedures for at least three different system malfunctions during flight portion. Each scenario must include: recognition, analysis, memory items (if applicable), checklist completion, decision-making for continued flight or landing.

  16. Maintain professionalism throughout scenarios: Demonstrate appropriate startle response management—pause briefly to analyze rather than making hasty decisions, verbalize thought process to manage task loading, maintain composure as expected of commercial pilot. Manage simulated passenger concerns appropriately (“I’m addressing this now, we’ll land shortly”).

  17. Practice task prioritization during malfunctions: Demonstrate Aviate-Navigate-Communicate priority structure. Maintain aircraft control first, determine where to land second, make radio calls last (if at all—not required if workload prohibitive). Show appropriate task shedding when workload high: simplify navigation, delay non-essential radio calls, focus on critical tasks only.

  18. Prevent undesired aircraft states: Throughout all malfunction scenarios, maintain awareness of altitude, airspeed, aircraft attitude, and position. Perform periodic “reset” checks every 10-15 seconds during high workload: altitude check, airspeed check, attitude stable, know where I am. Correct any unintended deviations immediately.

  19. Demonstrate situational awareness: Throughout flight and malfunction scenarios, maintain awareness of position relative to airports, terrain, obstacles, and airspace. Answer instructor questions about “where would you land right now?” or “what’s your fuel state?” or “where’s the nearest airport?” without hesitation.

  20. Debrief scenarios with instructor: Immediately after each simulated malfunction, participate in debrief discussion. Accept coaching on areas for improvement. Ask questions about any procedures or decisions that were unclear. Demonstrate learning by applying corrections to subsequent scenarios.

  21. Review completion standards against own performance: Self-assess performance against ACS CH.X.D completion standards: Did I determine appropriate action for three malfunction types? Did I complete checklists? Did I maintain aircraft control within commercial tolerances? Did I demonstrate adequate risk management?

  22. Complete post-flight review: After landing, participate actively in comprehensive debrief. Take notes on areas needing improvement. Ask for clarification on any system malfunctions not fully understood. Request additional practice scenarios if any element unclear.

  23. Complete assigned additional study: After lesson, thoroughly review POH/RFM emergency procedures section for all system malfunctions. Study systems schematics until able to explain each system’s operation, failure modes, and effects without reference. Prepare to brief each emergency checklist from memory with checklist backup. Consider commercial operation implications for each malfunction type.

  24. Practice emergency flows mentally: Between lessons, mentally rehearse each malfunction scenario: symptoms, recognition, immediate action, checklist completion, landing decision. Build automatic response patterns for time-critical emergencies (fire, electrical failure, hydraulic failure). Visualize maintaining composure and professional decision-making under pressure.

  25. Prepare questions for next lesson: Identify any areas of confusion or uncertainty in systems knowledge or emergency procedures. Prepare specific questions for instructor. Research unfamiliar concepts in FAA handbooks or manufacturer documentation. Come to next lesson prepared to demonstrate mastery of all system malfunction knowledge and procedures.

Completion Standards

The lesson is complete when the student meets the standards of ACS CH.X.D, demonstrating commercial pilot proficiency in systems and equipment malfunction management. Specifically, the student must:

Knowledge Requirements:

  1. Explain causes of partial or complete power loss specific to the helicopter’s powerplant type (piston or turbine), including fuel system failures, carburetor ice (piston), governor malfunction (turbine), fuel contamination, fuel starvation, mechanical failure, and ignition system failure.

  2. Describe electrical system malfunctions specific to the training helicopter: alternator/generator failure, battery depletion, circuit breaker failures, wiring faults. Explain indications (ammeter discharge, low voltage warning, dimming lights, equipment failures), immediate actions (reduce electrical load, check circuit breaker), and battery endurance limitations.

  3. Explain flight instrument malfunctions and recognition patterns: attitude indicator failure (vacuum/pressure or electrical failure), heading indicator precession or failure, altimeter failure, airspeed indicator failure, vertical speed indicator lag or failure, turn coordinator failure. Describe transition to partial panel operations and alternate methods of maintaining aircraft control.

  4. Describe pitot-static system malfunctions thoroughly: pitot blockage effects (ASI reads zero if drain open, acts like altimeter if drain blocked), static blockage effects (altimeter and VSI freeze, ASI unreliable), use of alternate static source, emergency procedures (breaking VSI glass for cabin pressure reference).

  5. For glass cockpit/EFIS-equipped helicopters: explain primary flight display failure, multi-function display failure, complete system failure, reversionary mode operations, AHRS failure, and backup instrument usage.

  6. For retractable landing gear helicopters (if applicable): describe gear extension failures, unsafe gear indications, asymmetric gear scenarios, emergency gear extension procedures, and gear door malfunctions.

  7. Explain inoperative flight control scenarios: cyclic binding or restriction (hydraulic failure, linkage binding, foreign object), collective binding or restriction, throttle correlation failure, pedal/anti-torque system failure. Describe immediate actions, control limitations, and landing considerations for each.

  8. For hydraulically-boosted control systems: describe hydraulic pressure loss effects, control force increases, airspeed limitations without hydraulics, prohibited maneuvers, hydraulic bypass/cutout operations, and landing technique modifications.

  9. Identify various frequency vibrations and affected components: low-frequency 1/rev (main rotor tracking/balance, tail rotor tracking), medium-frequency multi-per-rev (aerodynamic phenomena, structural resonance, hub components), high-frequency (engine bearings, transmission bearings, tail rotor gearbox, accessory gearbox). Explain diagnostic flow: feel location and frequency → identify likely component → assess severity → determine landing urgency.

  10. Describe causes and remedies for smoke or fire: electrical fire (acrid smell, white/gray smoke, master off, vents closed, land immediately), engine fire ground (continue start or keep running initially, fuel off after 10-15 seconds), engine fire in flight (immediate autorotation, fuel off, land immediately), cabin fire (extinguisher use, vents closed, land immediately). Explain fire extinguisher operation (PASS method) and post-fire procedures.

  11. Explain other helicopter-specific malfunctions: rotor brake failure to engage/disengage, governor failure (turbine helicopters requiring manual throttle), clutch slippage or failure (piston helicopters), fuel system anomalies, pneumatic/vacuum system failure, pitot heat failure, anti-ice system failure.

Risk Management:

  1. Demonstrate understanding of startle response management: recognize physiological startle effect (adrenaline, tunnel vision, auditory exclusion), apply conscious breathing and verbalization techniques, maintain aircraft control first before analysis, avoid hasty decisions, demonstrate training value in reducing startle through familiarization.

  2. Apply proper checklist usage for all system malfunctions: distinguish memory items (immediate actions) from checklist items (follow-up verification), demonstrate checklist discipline by actually reading checklist items rather than relying on memory, locate appropriate emergency checklist within 10 seconds, complete all checklist items systematically.

  3. Demonstrate task prioritization and situational awareness: apply Aviate-Navigate-Communicate hierarchy correctly (maintain control first, determine landing site second, radio calls last), practice task shedding under high workload (eliminate non-essential communications and tasks), perform periodic situational awareness checks (altitude, position, fuel, nearest airport) every 10-15 seconds during malfunction scenarios, recognize and avoid loss of situational awareness or spatial disorientation.

  4. Prevent and recognize undesired aircraft states: maintain altitude within ±100 feet of assigned altitude during malfunction scenarios, maintain heading within ±10 degrees during malfunction troubleshooting, maintain airspeed within ±10 knots during stabilized flight portions, recognize and immediately correct any unintended altitude loss, descent, climb, or heading deviation, demonstrate awareness that troubleshooting fixation can lead to undesired states.

Skill Requirements:

  1. Determine appropriate action for simulated emergencies from at least three of the following categories (as specified by evaluator/instructor):

    • Electrical malfunction (a)
    • Flight instrument malfunction (b)
    • Pitot-static system malfunction (c)
    • Electronic flight deck display malfunction (d)
    • Landing gear malfunction (e) [if applicable to aircraft]
    • Inoperative flight control/trim (f)
    • Hydraulic failure (g) [if applicable to aircraft]

  2. For each malfunction scenario presented, correctly:

    • Recognize the malfunction within 10 seconds of presentation based on indications
    • Analyze which system(s) failed and what other systems may be affected
    • Perform immediate action memory items correctly and in proper sequence
    • Locate and complete the appropriate emergency checklist within 30 seconds
    • Make appropriate decisions regarding continued flight vs. immediate landing vs. landing as soon as practical
    • Identify nearest suitable landing area and initiate planning for approach
    • Maintain aircraft control throughout: altitude ±100 feet, heading ±10 degrees, airspeed ±10 knots

  3. Complete appropriate checklists for each malfunction: demonstrate ability to locate emergency procedure in POH/RFM or on emergency checklist placard, read each checklist item aloud, perform each action systematically, verify completion of checklist before continuing flight or approach.

Aircraft Control During All Scenarios:

  1. Maintain aircraft control within commercial pilot standards throughout all malfunction scenarios:

    • Altitude: ±100 feet from assigned altitude during level flight and troubleshooting
    • Heading: ±10 degrees from assigned heading during level flight
    • Airspeed: ±10 knots from assigned airspeed during stabilized flight
    • Rotor RPM: within green arc at all times, with understanding of limits for specific helicopter type
    • Coordination: maintain coordinated flight, no excessive slip or skid
    • Trim: use friction adjustments or trim (if equipped) to reduce control forces during troubleshooting

  2. Demonstrate smooth, professional, and decisive emergency management: no panic or hasty actions, systematic approach to problem-solving, clear verbalization of thought process, appropriate crew resource management (communication with instructor as simulated crew member or passenger), maintenance of professional demeanor consistent with commercial pilot operations.

Evaluation Criteria:

The student meets the completion standards when they can consistently and without instructor assistance:

The instructor should evaluate not only technical proficiency but also decision-making quality, aeronautical judgment, and the professional demeanor expected of a commercial helicopter pilot responsible for passengers, cargo, and company operations. The student should demonstrate capability to handle system malfunctions as pilot-in-command without instructor intervention, ready to apply these skills in actual commercial operations.

Want the complete lesson plan library as a downloadable Word document?

Download the Free CFI Lesson Plan Binder