Shallow Approach and Running/Roll-On Landing

Objective

The student will demonstrate competency in performing a shallow approach and running/roll-on landing to commercial pilot standards, maintaining effective translational lift (ETL) through surface contact with precise directional control, while understanding when to use this maneuver, aircraft limitations, environmental considerations, and associated hazards. The student will maintain powerplant and rotor RPM within normal limits, establish the proper shallow approach angle with appropriate rate of closure, and execute smooth ground contact with landing gear parallel to ground track. Upon completion, the student will meet all performance standards specified in the Commercial Pilot—Helicopter Airman Certification Standards (FAA-S-ACS-16), Area of Operation V, Task F (CH.V.F).

Content

When to Use Shallow Approach and Running/Roll-On Landing (CH.V.F.K1)

The shallow approach and running landing is a commercial helicopter maneuver used when:

Primary Applications:

• Operating in confined areas where normal approaches cannot be performed due to obstacles on final approach but the landing area itself is adequate
• Landing in areas where power is limited due to high density altitude, heavy gross weight, or aircraft performance limitations
• Practicing emergency procedures for loss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE) during approaches
• Conducting operations on smooth, prepared surfaces such as runways, taxiways, or hard-packed landing zones
• Maintaining directional control in strong, gusty crosswind conditions where hovering is difficult or inadvisable
• Executing precision approaches where maintaining ETL provides added control margin and reduced power requirements

Distinction from Normal Approach: Unlike a normal approach terminating to a hover (which requires approximately 50-70% power depending on conditions), the shallow approach maintains ETL throughout, requiring only 20-25% power to execute. This is the operational difference that makes running landings valuable when power is limited but not critically low.

The Power-ETL Relationship: ETL provides approximately 20-25% increased rotor efficiency. In a hover, you’re moving a large column of air downward through the rotor system with significant induced flow and recirculation. When moving forward at 16-24 knots (ETL speed varies by aircraft), the rotor system encounters relatively undisturbed air, reducing induced drag substantially. Think of it like the difference between a ceiling fan in a closed room versus one near an open window—fresh air improves efficiency.

Aircraft Limitations (CH.V.F.K1)

Airframe Limitations:

Landing Gear Design: Running landings require skid-equipped helicopters with robust landing gear designed for forward ground contact. The maneuver is appropriate for:

• Robinson R22/R44/R66 (skid gear, designed for forward ground contact up to 20 knots)
• Bell 206 series (skid gear rated for running landings)
• Enstrom helicopters (skid gear)
• Hughes/Schweizer 269/300 series (skid gear)

Per aircraft-specific limitations in the POH/RFM, maximum ground contact speed typically ranges from 15-25 knots depending on model. Exceeding these speeds risks:

• Landing gear structural damage or collapse
• Skid shoe wear or separation
• Ground resonance initiation
• Loss of directional control

Cross-Tube and Aft Cross-Tube Loading: The landing gear cross-tubes (the structural members connecting left and right skids) are designed for vertical loads, not sustained lateral loads. Running landings place dynamic lateral loads on these structures, particularly during crosswind operations. Robinson R44 POH specifically cautions against excessive lateral loading that can occur during aggressive crosswind running landings.

Surface Requirements (CH.V.F.K1):

Suitable Surfaces:

• Paved runways and taxiways (ideal—smooth, predictable friction)
• Hard-packed dirt or gravel (acceptable if free of significant irregularities)
• Mowed grass fields (acceptable if ground is firm and level)
• Dry lakebeds (acceptable but verify surface hardness)

Unsuitable Surfaces:

• Soft or muddy terrain (skids will dig in, causing dynamic rollover)
• Rough, uneven ground with rocks or ruts (ground resonance risk)
• Sand or loose gravel (unpredictable friction, loss of directional control)
• Snow or ice (insufficient friction for controlled deceleration)
• Pavement with significant crown or slope (lateral drift)

Surface Texture Effects: Surface friction coefficient directly affects deceleration rate and directional control. Smooth asphalt provides high friction (coefficient approximately 0.7-0.8 dry), allowing rapid, controlled deceleration. Wet pavement reduces this to 0.4-0.5, requiring longer landing roll. Grass provides variable friction (0.3-0.6 depending on moisture and length), requiring pilot compensation for longer rollout distance.

Effects of Wind, Weight, Temperature, and Density Altitude (CH.V.F.K2)

Wind Effects:

Headwind Component: Headwinds are favorable for running landings because:

• Reduced groundspeed at touchdown while maintaining ETL airspeed (e.g., 20 knots indicated airspeed with 10-knot headwind = 10 knots groundspeed)
• Shorter landing roll distance required
• Better directional control throughout deceleration
• Reduced lateral drift tendency

Example: At 18 knots indicated with 8-knot headwind, touchdown groundspeed is only 10 knots, cutting landing roll distance nearly in half compared to calm conditions.

Tailwind Component: Tailwinds are extremely hazardous for running landings:

• Increased groundspeed at constant indicated airspeed (e.g., 18 knots indicated with 5-knot tailwind = 23 knots groundspeed)
• Dramatically increased landing roll distance
• May exceed landing gear design limits for ground contact speed
• Weathervaning tendency during deceleration creates directional control challenges
• Higher closure rate makes timing flare more difficult

Commercial pilots must recognize that even 5 knots of tailwind can be operationally significant. A 5-knot tailwind increases landing roll by approximately 50% and puts you dangerously close to maximum ground contact speed limits in most training helicopters.

Crosswind Component:

Crosswinds create the most complex challenges during running landings:

During Approach: Maintain ground track alignment with landing surface using coordinated cyclic drift correction (heading 5-10° into wind, aircraft crabbed). Unlike fixed-wing where you “kick out the crab” before touchdown, helicopters land in a crab, aligned with ground track, not with the wind.

At Touchdown: The instant skids contact, friction force acts on the skids while inertia and wind act on the fuselage. This creates a powerful weathervaning moment attempting to rotate the helicopter into the wind. Anticipate this with immediate upwind cyclic pressure.

During Rollout: As groundspeed decreases, weathervaning tendency increases because aerodynamic forces decrease while friction forces remain constant. Maximum cyclic displacement into the wind typically required during final 5 knots of deceleration. If you run out of cyclic travel, you’ll weathervane—potentially violently.

Crosswind Limits: Most training helicopters have demonstrated crosswind components of 15-17 knots, but this is for hovering operations. For running landings, practical crosswind limits are lower—typically 10-12 knots maximum—because you cannot stop the weathervane if it develops at speed. Personal minimums for commercial students should start at 5-7 knots and increase with experience.

Weight Effects:

Heavy Weight:

• Increased groundspeed required to maintain ETL (rotor disk loading increases, ETL occurs at higher speeds)
• Greater kinetic energy at touchdown requiring longer rollout distance
• Higher power required during approach, reducing power margin for go-around
• Landing gear experiences higher dynamic loads during touchdown and deceleration
• Greater momentum during rollout makes directional corrections more sluggish

Light Weight:

• Reduced groundspeed required for ETL (less disk loading)
• Shorter landing roll, quicker deceleration
• More power available for go-around or waveoff
• Greater control authority and responsiveness
• Reduced gear loading

Per the kinetic energy formula (KE = ½mv²), doubling weight doubles landing energy, but doubling speed quadruples it. This is why even small tailwind components are so hazardous—the energy increases geometrically.

Temperature and Density Altitude Effects (CH.V.F.K2):

High density altitude conditions compound challenges:

Performance Degradation:

• Reduced engine power output (typically 3% per 1,000 feet density altitude for normally aspirated engines)
• Increased true airspeed for same indicated airspeed (approximately 2% per 1,000 feet)
• Rotor system operates in less dense air, requiring higher blade angle of attack for same thrust
• Reduced power margin between power required and power available

Operational Impact: At 6,000-foot density altitude in a Robinson R44:

• 18 knots indicated airspeed = approximately 21 knots true airspeed
• Power available may be only 5-10% above power required during approach
• Go-around may not be possible once committed to landing
• Main rotor RPM more difficult to maintain within green arc
• Longer landing roll due to increased true airspeed

Decision Point: Under high density altitude conditions, the decision to land is more critical. Once you descend below ETL speed, you may not have power to re-establish ETL and must continue to touchdown. Commercial pilots must calculate density altitude before flight and understand their power margins throughout the approach profile.

Selection of Approach Path and Landing (CH.V.F.R1)

Approach Path Selection:

The shallow approach uses approximately a 5-10° approach angle, compared to 10-15° for normal approaches. This shallow angle:

• Maintains ETL throughout the approach profile
• Provides longer time in transition from flying to ground contact
• Allows assessment of landing surface characteristics during extended final
• Permits go-around at any point with minimal power increase

Approach Path Planning:

1. Aim Point: Select touchdown point approximately 100-200 feet into landing area, accounting for rollout distance of 200-400 feet depending on conditions
2. Obstacle Clearance: Ensure 5-10° approach angle clears all obstacles by adequate margin (minimum 50 feet, or more if obstacles create turbulence)
3. Go-Around Options: Maintain approach angle that allows go-around to downwind or crosswind by adding minimal power and maintaining ETL
4. Wind Assessment: Continuously verify wind direction using windsock, flags, smoke, or surface indicators; plan ground track aligned with landing surface centerline

Landing Based on Performance and Limitations:

Commercial judgment requires analyzing:

• Power Available vs. Required: If current power required approaches power available, running landing may be mandatory rather than optional
• Wind Conditions: Strong crosswinds may dictate abandoning running landing in favor of hover taxi to a better-aligned surface
• Surface Condition: If surface appears unsuitable during approach, initiate go-around before committing to touchdown
• Density Altitude: High density altitude reduces power margin, making running landing more attractive but go-around less available

Effects of Wind Direction, Windshear, Turbulence (CH.V.F.R2)

Wind Direction Effects:

Wind direction relative to landing surface determines feasibility:

Direct Headwind (0-15° off nose):

• Ideal condition—reduces groundspeed proportionally
• Minimal drift correction required
• Predictable, stable approach
• Maximum control authority available

Quartering Headwind (15-45° off nose):

• Requires drift correction to maintain ground track
• Anticipate weathervaning at touchdown
• Plan cyclic pressure into wind immediately upon skid contact
• Still favorable for running landing operations

Crosswind (45-90° off nose):

• Requires continuous drift correction and crab angle
• Strong weathervaning forces at touchdown
• May require full cyclic deflection during rollout
• Consider alternative landing direction if available
• Practical limit approximately 10-12 knots for training helicopters

Tailwind Component (any amount):

• Avoid running landings with tailwind if any alternative exists
• Even 3-5 knots creates significantly increased groundspeed and landing roll
• Directional control compromise during deceleration
• May exceed landing gear ground contact speed limitations

Windshear Effects:

Windshear—sudden change in wind speed or direction—is particularly hazardous during shallow approaches because:

Headwind Shear to Calm or Tailwind:

• Sudden loss of headwind component increases groundspeed
• Rate of descent increases suddenly as ETL effectiveness reduces
• Pilot may instinctively reduce collective to maintain rate of descent, making situation worse
• Requires immediate power addition to arrest descent and maintain Nr

Example Scenario: Established on shallow approach at 18 knots indicated, 10-knot headwind (8 knots groundspeed). Encounter windshear to calm conditions. Indicated airspeed drops toward 8 knots (below ETL), groundspeed suddenly 18 knots, rate of descent increases. Immediate response: add power, increase airspeed to re-establish ETL, assess whether to continue or go around.

Tailwind Shear to Headwind:

• Less hazardous but still requires attention
• Sudden airspeed increase may cause ballooning
• Reduce collective smoothly to compensate
• Verify rotor RPM remains in green arc

Detection and Avoidance:

• Monitor ASOS/AWOS for wind variability and gusts
• Observe windsock for rapid changes during approach
• Be suspicious of winds >10 knots variability or gusty conditions
• Brief yourself: “If I encounter windshear, I will immediately add power and go around”

Turbulence and Wake Turbulence Effects:

Mechanical Turbulence:

• Created by wind flowing over or around obstacles (buildings, trees, terrain)
• Causes rapid control inputs and variations in rate of descent
• Most severe within 3-5 rotor diameters downwind of obstacles
• Plan approach path to avoid downwind side of obstacles when possible

Thermal Turbulence:

• Rising air from heated surfaces, particularly asphalt in summer
• Causes unexpected updrafts and downdrafts
• Most prevalent during afternoon operations in hot weather
• Requires continuous small control corrections, can disrupt stabilized approach

Wake Turbulence:

• Wingtip vortices from fixed-wing aircraft or rotor vortices from larger helicopters
• Most hazardous when winds are calm or light (vortices sink and linger)
• Avoid flight path below and behind preceding aircraft
• Wait 2-3 minutes after departure/arrival of larger aircraft before using same surface
• If landing behind larger helicopter, land prior to their touchdown point

Commercial pilots must recognize that turbulence during a shallow approach compromises precise rate of descent control and makes ground contact less predictable. When turbulence is moderate or greater, consider normal approach to hover instead.

Planning for Powerplant Failure (CH.V.F.R3)

Power Failure During Approach Phase:

The shallow approach provides significant advantages during powerplant failure:

Immediate Actions Upon Power Failure:

1. Lower Collective Smoothly: Maintain rotor RPM, exchange altitude for rotor energy
2. Adjust Attitude: Establish approximately 60 knots airspeed (or manufacturer’s recommended autorotation speed)
3. Identify Suitable Landing Area: Surface you were approaching is likely suitable, but scan for alternatives
4. Plan Autorotative Flare and Touchdown: Use remaining altitude for normal autorotation execution

Advantages of Shallow Approach:

• More altitude available throughout approach compared to steep approach
• Already established at ETL speed—only slight pitch adjustment needed for autorotation
• Forward airspeed already established, minimizing required control inputs
• Landing surface already verified suitable (smooth, firm)
• Greater time to respond and plan compared to failure during hover taxi or low hover

Critical Decision Points:

Above 50 Feet AGL: Full autorotation procedure with flare. Sufficient altitude and airspeed to execute normal autorotation to landing.

Below 50 Feet AGL, Above ETL: Limited flare capability. Focus on:

• Maintaining rotor RPM (must not bleed off rotor energy prematurely)
• Leveling skids parallel to ground track
• Cushioning touchdown with collective (one application only—you get one chance)
• Accepting higher groundspeed touchdown (may be 15-20 knots)

Below ETL (unusual in shallow approach): Very limited options. Primary focus is rotor RPM preservation and level attitude at ground contact.

Briefing Items: Before each shallow approach, brief yourself: “If I lose power above 50 feet, I will establish 60-knot autorotation and flare normally. If I lose power below 50 feet, I will maintain rotor RPM, level the aircraft, and cushion with collective at ground contact.”

Collision Hazards (CH.V.F.R4)

Other Aircraft:

Pattern Traffic:

• Running landings often use airport runways, requiring integration with fixed-wing traffic
• Communicate position and intentions clearly: “Cessna 123, helicopter 45RD, midfield left downwind for runway 27, running landing”
• Helicopters typically use right-hand patterns to avoid conflict with fixed-wing left patterns, but follow local procedures
• Be aware that fixed-wing closure rates are much higher—they overtake quickly

Other Helicopters:

• Multiple helicopters may operate in training areas
• Clearly announce approach path and landing area on CTAF
• Scan continuously for conflicting traffic, especially during final approach when workload is high
• Recognize that other helicopters can approach from non-standard directions

Radio Communication (CH.V.F.S2): Professional radio calls for running landing operations:

• “Riverside Traffic, Helicopter 2345Bravo, two miles northeast, inbound for runway 27 running landing, Riverside”
• “Riverside Traffic, Helicopter 45Bravo, one mile final, runway 27 running landing, Riverside”
• “Riverside Traffic, Helicopter 45Bravo, clear of runway 27, Riverside”

See-and-Avoid: Running landings increase collision risk because:

• Head-down time increases during final approach (monitoring instruments, evaluating landing surface)
• Attention focused ahead during rollout, peripheral scanning decreases
• Operating in or near traffic pattern with mixed aircraft types

Mitigation:

• Position strobe lights and landing light ON during all flight operations
• Systematic clearing turns before entering final approach
• Continuous scan pattern: 12 o’clock, instruments, 10 o’clock, instruments, 2 o’clock, instruments, repeat
• Student focuses on approach execution, instructor maintains enhanced traffic scan

Ground Vehicles and Personnel:

• Landing areas may have vehicle traffic, wildlife, or personnel
• Aircraft on final approach have right-of-way, but defensive planning is essential
• Scan landing surface during entire approach for vehicles entering from taxiways or unexpected personnel
• Be prepared to execute go-around if landing area becomes obstructed

Landing Surface Hazards (CH.V.F.R5)

Surface Assessment During Approach:

The extended final approach allows continuous surface evaluation:

Look For:

• Surface Composition: Verify concrete, asphalt, hard-packed dirt, or firm grass—not sand, mud, or loose gravel
• Obstructions: FOD (foreign object debris), rocks, ruts, holes, runway edge lights, markers
• Surface Contour: Crown, slope, dips, or bumps that could cause dynamic rollover
• Contamination: Water, ice, snow, oil, or rubber deposits reducing friction
• Wildlife: Birds, particularly in grass areas adjacent to runways

If Surface Unsuitable: Initiate go-around immediately. Do not attempt to “make it work” by adjusting touchdown point or technique. An unsuitable surface will not become suitable.

Runway Incursion Hazards:

When operating on or across active runways:

Before Landing:

• Verify runway clear of aircraft, vehicles, and personnel
• Confirm landing clearance received (towered airports)
• Brief crossing taxiways along rollout path

During Rollout:

• Monitor for aircraft on crossing taxiway, especially during long rollout when attention focused on directional control
• Be prepared to add power and lift off if obstruction appears ahead

After Landing:

• Clear runway expeditiously when directional control assured
• Announce runway clear on CTAF (non-towered) or await tower instruction (towered)
• Use runway incursion avoidance procedures: verify crossing runways clear before taxiing across

Dynamic Rollover (CH.V.F.R6)

Dynamic rollover is an aerodynamic phenomenon where the helicopter pivots around a skid (the pivot point) with rolling motion that exceeds the pilot’s ability to counteract with cyclic, resulting in uncontrollable roll to the side.

Critical Conditions for Dynamic Rollover:

1. Pivot Point Established: One skid in firm contact with ground
2. Rolling Motion Initiated: Lateral cyclic input, crosswind, or slope
3. Critical Angle Exceeded: Aircraft rolls beyond angle where righting moment from main rotor thrust can overcome rolling moment from weight

During Running Landing:

Dynamic rollover risk is HIGHEST during deceleration phase when:

Crosswind Weathervaning:

• Strong crosswind causes weathervaning during rollout
• Pilot applies upwind cyclic to maintain ground track
• Upwind skid lifts slightly while downwind skid remains planted
• Downwind skid becomes pivot point
• Continued weathervaning increases roll rate
• Pilot applies more cyclic, but wind overcomes cyclic authority
• Aircraft rolls rapidly onto side

Prevention During Running Landing:

1. Crosswind Limits: Never exceed personal crosswind limits based on experience
2. Immediate Cyclic Response: First indication of weathervaning, apply aggressive cyclic into wind
3. Monitor Cyclic Position: If approaching cyclic limits, add power and lift off (go around on rollout)
4. Collective Management: As groundspeed decreases, begin lowering collective to increase effective weight on skids
5. Surface Slope Awareness: Be aware of runway crown or lateral slope that adds to crosswind drift

Recovery: If dynamic rollover develops during rollout:

• DO NOT pull collective (increases roll rate by raising center of gravity)
• Add power gradually and lift off if cyclic authority remains
• If beyond recovery point: Lower collective fully, accept that aircraft will roll onto side—minimize damage and injury
• Critical decision: Must be made in 1-2 seconds once rollover begins

After Landing: Once groundspeed reaches zero and collective is fully lowered, dynamic rollover risk dramatically decreases because cyclic authority is maximum and rollover requires greater disturbance to initiate.

Ground Resonance (CH.V.F.R7)

Ground resonance is a self-excited oscillation involving interaction between rotor system dynamics and landing gear flexibility. Occurs when rotor blades become aerodynamically or mechanically out of balance, causing oscillations that couple with landing gear natural frequency.

Conditions Required:

1. Rotor System: Articulated or semi-rigid rotor with lead-lag hinges or flexibility
2. Blade Imbalance: Blades not equally spaced in rotation (one blade leads, one lags)
3. Landing Gear Contact: Skids on ground providing feedback path
4. Critical Nr Range: Usually occurs at specific rotor RPM (often during spool-up or run-down)

During Running Landing:

Ground resonance risk exists during:

Initial Touchdown:

• Skids contact rough surface or at uneven attitudes
• Shock transmitted through landing gear to rotor system
• If Nr in critical range and blades become imbalanced, oscillations can begin

Rollout Phase:

• Skids bouncing or skipping over rough surface
• Repeated shock loads to landing gear
• If surface rough enough, can trigger resonance

Final Deceleration:

• As collective lowered, Nr may decay through critical range
• If landing gear still experiencing dynamic loads from deceleration, resonance can initiate

Recognition:

• Lateral oscillations of fuselage, increasing in magnitude
• Visual observation: aircraft “hopping” or “rocking” side to side
• Oscillations build rapidly—seconds from onset to structural failure
• Cannot be controlled by cyclic inputs

Recovery:

On Ground, Nr in Green Arc:

• Immediately increase collective fully (lift helicopter into hover—eliminates ground feedback)
• Once stable in hover, land normally in a different location
• Never attempt to control resonance with cyclic

On Ground, Nr Decaying:

• Immediately close throttle fully (opposite of instinct)
• Eliminates energy source feeding oscillations
• Accept rotor run-down—structural integrity more important than keeping blades turning

Prevention During Running Landing:

1. Surface Selection: Choose smooth, firm surfaces; avoid rough, uneven terrain
2. Nr Management: Maintain Nr in green arc throughout approach and landing
3. Smooth Touchdown: Avoid bouncing or hard contact
4. Collective Control: Lower collective smoothly during deceleration, avoid jerky inputs
5. Proper Maintenance: Ensure damper system (if equipped) serviceable, blades properly tracked

Aircraft Limitations (CH.V.F.R8)

Operating Limitations from RFM/POH:

Rotor RPM Limits:

• Maximum Nr: Typically 108-112% depending on aircraft
• Minimum Nr (power on): Typically 97-101%
• During running landing: Must remain within green arc throughout approach, touchdown, and rollout
• Nr decay during rollout with collective lowered can drop below minimums if pilot not attentive

Airspeed Limitations:

• VNE (Velocity Never Exceed): Not applicable to running landing (too low and slow)
• Ground Contact Speed: Maximum groundspeed for skid contact with surface, typically 15-25 knots
  • R22: 20 knots maximum
  • R44: 25 knots maximum
  • S300CBi: 20 knots maximum
• Crosswind Component: Demonstrated or maximum, typically 15-17 knots (but practical limits lower for running landings)

Weight and Balance:

• Must be within limits at landing (not just takeoff)
• CG position affects cyclic authority during rollout
• Aft CG limits cyclic authority for forward control inputs, compromising directional control

Power Limitations:

• Maximum continuous power must not be exceeded during approach
• If power required approaches maximum available, running landing becomes mandatory (not optional)
• Be aware of time-limited power ratings (5-minute maximum power typically available only for 5 minutes)

Distractions, Task Prioritization, Loss of Situational Awareness (CH.V.F.R9)

Common Distractions During Running Landing:

1. Radio Communication: ATC clearance, traffic calls, or CTAF communication during critical phase
2. Traffic Conflicts: Spotting other aircraft on final or in pattern
3. Passenger Questions or Comments: Particularly from observers or students unfamiliar with maneuver
4. Checklist Interruption: Attempting to complete landing checklist while established on final
5. Cockpit Disruptions: Dropped item, unbuckled seatbelt, door opening slightly

Task Prioritization:

Commercial pilots use the fundamental priority hierarchy:

1. Aviate: Maintain aircraft control (attitude, airspeed, Nr)
2. Navigate: Maintain ground track alignment with landing surface
3. Communicate: Radio calls are lowest priority during critical phases

Critical Phases Where Distractions Are Most Hazardous:

Final 100 Feet:

• Workload highest (rate of descent control, ground track, surface assessment)
• Any distraction can cause loss of approach stability
• Briefing: “I will not respond to non-critical communications inside 100 feet”

Touchdown Through Initial Rollout (first 3 seconds):

• Highest workload period of entire maneuver
• Directional control demands full attention
• Crosswind weathervaning correction requires immediate cyclic response
• Briefing: “During touchdown and rollout, I will not talk or respond to anyone unless emergency declared”

Situational Awareness Threats:

Loss of Wind Awareness:

• Wind changes unnoticed during approach due to distraction
• Suddenly discover crosswind component exceeds capability during rollout
• Prevention: Continuous wind assessment throughout approach using windsock, flags, surface drift indicators

Ground Track Misalignment:

• Distraction causes drift off runway centerline
• Pilot fixates on drift correction, loses altitude awareness
• Touchdown occurs with lateral drift, creating dynamic rollover risk
• Prevention: Instrument cross-check pattern, altitude-airspeed-heading-ground track

Power Margin Mismanagement:

• Distraction causes power creep during approach
• Approaching maximum power available without recognition
• Go-around may not be possible
• Prevention: Periodic power check, brief power available before approach

Disorientation:

Unlikely in running landing operations but possible:

Visual Illusions:

• Sloping runway creates illusion of being too high or too low
• Night operations with limited ground references
• Bright sunlight at low sun angles creating shadows that obscure surface features

Prevention:

• Trust instruments for altitude and rate of descent
• Use approach angle reference (aim point should remain fixed in windscreen)
• If disoriented, execute go-around immediately and re-establish references

Schedule

Equipment

Required Aircraft Documents and Equipment:

• Helicopter certificated for shallow approach and running landing operations (skid-equipped)
• Current and valid airworthiness certificate
• Current aircraft registration
• Aircraft operating limitations (POH/RFM)
• Weight and balance data current for flight

Required Reference Materials:

• FAA-H-8083-21B, Helicopter Flying Handbook, Chapter 11 (Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards), Chapter 10 (Advanced Maneuvers)
• FAA-S-ACS-16, Commercial Pilot—Helicopter Airman Certification Standards, Area of Operation V, Task F
• Aircraft-specific Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Rotorcraft Flight Manual
• FAA-H-8083-25B, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Chapter 5 (Aerodynamics of Flight) for ground effect and ETL
• 14 CFR Part 91, General Operating and Flight Rules

Required Equipment and Materials:

• Aviation headset with intercom capability
• Current sectional chart for training area
• Airport/Facility Directory or Chart Supplement for airport information
• Current METAR/TAF for departure, destination, and training area airports
• Flight computer or electronic calculator for density altitude computation
• Kneeboards for both instructor and student

Visual Aids and Training Aids:

• Diagram of shallow approach profile (5-10° angle) compared to normal approach profile
• Illustration of effective translational lift (ETL) airflow patterns
• Dynamic rollover diagram showing pivot point and critical angle
• Ground resonance sequence illustration
• Crosswind landing diagram showing ground track, heading, and drift correction
• Video recording capability (optional, for post-flight debrief analysis)

Facilities:

• Airport or training area with suitable runway or landing area:
  • Minimum 2,000 feet length
  • Paved or hard-packed surface
  • Unobstructed approach path
  • Minimal traffic conflicts preferred for initial training
• Windsock or wind indicators visible from approach path

Instructor Actions

1. Conduct comprehensive ground instruction covering all knowledge elements per Content section, ensuring student understands when running landings are appropriate, why the maneuver is operationally valuable (power savings through ETL), and all associated risks. Use question-and-answer technique to verify understanding: “Why would we choose a running landing instead of a normal approach in high density altitude conditions?” Expected response should reference power savings from maintaining ETL.

2. Review aircraft-specific limitations from the POH/RFM for ground contact speed, demonstrated crosswind component, rotor RPM limits, and any cautions or warnings specific to running landing operations. Have student read limitations aloud and explain practical application. For R44: “What is our maximum ground contact speed and what determines that limit?” Expected: “25 knots, limited by landing gear structural design and skid shoe integrity.”

3. Calculate current performance including density altitude, power available, power required at hover, and power required in ETL. Use this data to brief whether running landing is optional (ample power margin) or potentially necessary (limited power margin). Document calculations. Example: “At 3,500 feet density altitude, we have approximately 8% power margin. Running landing is optional but good practice. If density altitude were 6,500 feet with only 2% margin, this maneuver would be operationally necessary.”

4. Assess current wind conditions using METAR, ASOS/AWOS, and visual indicators. Calculate headwind and crosswind components for planned landing surface. Brief student on wind effects expected during approach and rollout. State clearly: “We have 8 knots direct headwind. Expect groundspeed approximately 10 knots at touchdown maintaining 18 knots indicated. Minimal crosswind correction required. This is an ideal condition for this maneuver.”

5. Conduct pre-flight briefing covering traffic pattern entry, approach path, specific touchdown point, anticipated landing roll distance, go-around procedures, emergency procedures during approach, and communication procedures. Use the sterile cockpit concept: “From 100 feet to full stop, we will maintain complete focus on the maneuver with no non-essential communication.”

6. Brief and demonstrate common errors before flight: approaching too fast (excessive groundspeed at touchdown), approaching too slow (losing ETL and requiring power increase), poor rate of descent control (ballooning or sinking), landing with lateral drift, inadequate crosswind correction during rollout, allowing Nr to decay below green arc, and improper collective management during rollout. Explain consequences of each error.

7. Demonstrate complete maneuver the first time with full narration of every action and decision point. Example narration: “Downwind opposite touchdown point, reducing airspeed to 60 knots, completing landing checklist. Now abeam touchdown point, beginning descent with approximately 15% power reduction, maintaining 60 knots. Turning base, adjusting rate of descent to establish shallow 5-8 degree approach angle—my aim point is fixed in the windscreen just above the glareshield. Turning final, aligned with centerline, 18 knots indicated, 400 feet per minute descent rate, scanning instruments and surface ahead. Verifying surface clear, no obstacles, no traffic. At 100 feet, stabilized approach confirmed—airspeed 18 knots, rate of descent 400 fpm, Nr 102%, power approximately 22%, manifold pressure green, ground track aligned. At 50 feet, transitioning visual focus to surface ahead, maintaining approach angle. At 10 feet, beginning gradual collective reduction, maintaining level attitude, preparing for ground contact. Ground contact—skids level, maintaining centerline, immediately assessing weathervaning tendency—none present. Smoothly reducing collective as groundspeed decreases, applying aft cyclic to remain level attitude. Passing through 10 knots groundspeed, cyclic neutral fore-aft, monitoring lateral drift. 5 knots groundspeed, collective approaching full down, skids firmly planted. Full stop, collective full down, cyclic neutral, maintaining rotor RPM until ready for shutdown or next maneuver.”

8. Demonstrate second time with reduced narration, encouraging student to verbalize what they observe. Ask questions during demonstration: “What is my power setting right now? What airspeed am I maintaining? What would happen if I let airspeed decay to 12 knots at this point?”

9. Position student on controls for first student practice attempt. Provide clear division of responsibility: “You have the controls. I will back you up on collective and pedals if needed, and I will maintain traffic scan while you focus on approach execution. Call out any traffic you see. If I say ‘I have the controls,’ release immediately and acknowledge.”

10. Talk student through first approach with continuous guidance: “Reduce airspeed to 60 knots. Begin descent with small collective reduction. That’s too much—rate of descent increasing—add back a little collective. Good. Now turning base, maintain 60 knots. Adjust rate of descent with collective—we want a shallow approach, not steep. That’s better. Turning final now, align with centerline using pedals. You have left drift—apply right cyclic to stop the drift. Too much—you’re drifting right now. Small corrections. Good, you’re centered. Check your airspeed—you’re at 16 knots, increase to 18 knots. That’s your target speed throughout final. Monitor your rate of descent, verify aim point steady in windscreen. Approaching 100 feet, you should be stabilized now. Check—airspeed 18, rate of descent about 400, Nr good, ground track good. Scan the surface—is it clear? Verify. At 50 feet now, look ahead at your touchdown point, use peripheral vision for instruments. At 20 feet, prepare to reduce collective gradually. Too fast on collective—you’re ballooning—hold what you have. Let it settle. 10 feet, begin collective reduction now, keep the aircraft level with cyclic. Ground contact—skids level? Good. Watch your centerline, begin lowering collective as speed decreases. Monitor for weathervaning—any crosswind will try to turn you. Aft cyclic as needed to keep skids level. Passing 10 knots, keep reducing collective. 5 knots, collective should be nearly full down. Full stop, collective full down, excellent.”

11. Reduce guidance progressively over subsequent repetitions. Second approach: provide guidance only at key decision points. Third approach: allow student to execute independently with corrections only for safety or significant deviations. Fourth and subsequent approaches: intervene only for safety, allow student to make and recognize errors.

12. Demonstrate error correction technique if student makes repeated error. Example: if student consistently allows airspeed to decay below 16 knots, demonstrate proper airspeed control: “I have the controls. Watch my cyclic position and power setting. I’m maintaining 18 knots by making small pitch adjustments—see how slight the movements are? And I’m cross-checking airspeed every 3-5 seconds, not just looking once. You have the controls—this time focus specifically on holding 18 knots and nothing else. I’ll manage everything else for you.”

13. Introduce increasing complexity as student demonstrates basic proficiency: “This next approach, I want you to simulate the radio call at 100 feet: ‘Riverside traffic, Helicopter 45Bravo, short final runway 27 running landing.’ Say it out loud at 100 feet while maintaining approach control.” On subsequent approach: “On this approach, I will announce ‘traffic, 2 o’clock, 1 mile’ at 200 feet. You must respond appropriately while maintaining the approach.”

14. Brief go-around technique after student demonstrates consistent approaches: “If at any point on approach you are not stabilized—wrong airspeed, excessive rate of descent, off centerline, obstacles appear—you will execute go-around: simultaneously add power to climb power setting, adjust pitch attitude for level flight or climb, maintain 18 knots or accelerate to 40 knots as appropriate, announce go-around on radio. Let’s practice one. On this approach, at 100 feet I will say ‘go around,’ and you will execute immediately.”

15. Evaluate crosswind technique if wind conditions permit (5-10 knot crosswind ideal for training). Brief before approach: “We have 7-knot crosswind from the right. During approach you will need drift correction—point the nose slightly right of centerline to track straight down centerline. How much? Start with 5 degrees and adjust as needed. At touchdown, be ready—the helicopter will want to weathervane left into the wind. You must immediately apply right cyclic to prevent it. As you slow down, you’ll need more and more right cyclic. If you approach full right cyclic deflection before you stop, add power and lift off—do not let it weathervane.”

16. Debrief each approach immediately if student makes significant error requiring discussion: “Let’s hover over here and discuss that approach. On short final, you allowed airspeed to drop to 14 knots. What happened next? Right—rate of descent increased and you began to lose ETL. What is the correct response? Add power and increase airspeed. Let’s try it again with focus on maintaining 18 knots indicated.”

17. Monitor for task saturation indicators: student not responding to radio calls, fixation on single instrument, loss of traffic scan, jerky or over-controlling, delayed responses to instructions, or verbalized frustration. If observed: reduce complexity, take controls and demonstrate again, or terminate practice session if student is not making progress. State clearly: “I notice you’re working very hard and making the same error repeatedly. Let’s take a break. I’ll fly us back to the airport while you observe, and we’ll continue this next lesson.”

18. Assign self-assessment task after 4-5 approaches: “On this next approach, I want you to evaluate yourself after touchdown. Tell me what went well and what you would change on the next approach. This is how you will improve without an instructor in the aircraft—self-analysis.”

19. Practice emergency procedures (simulated, at safe altitude initially): “During this approach, at 150 feet I will roll off the throttle to simulate engine failure. You will immediately lower collective, adjust attitude for 60-knot autorotation, and plan to continue the landing to the surface ahead. I will recover before touchdown. Ready? Beginning approach.” On subsequent practice after student demonstrates correct response: “This time, at 40 feet on approach, simulated engine failure. What is your response at this altitude? Correct—maintain Nr, level the aircraft, cushion with collective at touchdown, accept higher groundspeed landing.”

20. Conduct comprehensive post-flight debrief covering every approach executed. Use objective data: “Approach 1: airspeed varied from 16 to 22 knots, ground track deviated 15 feet left of centerline, touchdown was firm but acceptable, rollout directional control was good. Approach 2: airspeed consistent 18 knots plus or minus 2, ground track centered, touchdown smooth, rollout directional control excellent. You met commercial standards on approach 2. Let’s discuss approach 1—what caused the airspeed variation?” Guide student to self-analysis and corrective planning.

Student Actions

1. Actively participate in ground instruction by asking questions when concepts are unclear, answering instructor questions to demonstrate understanding, and taking notes on key risk management items and technique points. When instructor asks, “Why does ETL reduce power required?”, provide complete answer referencing undisturbed air flow and reduced induced drag.

2. Calculate density altitude and aircraft performance using current weather data, field elevation, and aircraft weight. Show work to instructor. Determine power available, power required in hover, and power required at ETL speeds. Verbalize what the numbers mean operationally: “At 4,500-foot density altitude, we have 6% power margin. Running landing is optional but provides good practice and would be necessary if density altitude were higher.”

3. Review aircraft limitations from POH/RFM before flight and be prepared to recite maximum ground contact speed, maximum demonstrated crosswind component, and rotor RPM limits. Understand and explain why these limits exist.

4. Assess wind conditions using all available information: METAR, AWOS, windsock observation, surface indicators (flags, smoke, dust). Calculate headwind and crosswind components for planned landing direction. Brief instructor on expected wind effects: “Wind is 8 knots from 270, landing runway 27. Headwind component approximately 8 knots, negligible crosswind. Expect groundspeed around 10 knots at touchdown maintaining 18 knots indicated.”

5. Complete pre-flight planning including reviewing traffic pattern procedures for training airport, identifying touchdown point and rollout area, calculating expected landing roll distance, and briefing personal go-around criteria. State to instructor: “I will go around if airspeed drops below 16 knots, if rate of descent exceeds 500 fpm, if ground track drifts more than 20 feet off centerline, or if any traffic conflict develops.”

6. Conduct thorough aircraft preflight inspection per checklist, paying particular attention to landing gear condition (skid tubes, cross-tubes, skid shoes for wear or damage), main rotor dampers if equipped (ground resonance prevention), and overall aircraft condition. Report any discrepancies to instructor.

7. Perform before-landing checklist at appropriate point in traffic pattern (typically downwind abeam touchdown point). Checklist must be completed before turning base leg. Verbalize checklist items: “Landing light—on. Fuel—sufficient, on fullest tank. Carb heat—as required. Mixture—rich.”

8. Execute first approach under instructor close guidance, following instructor verbal commands while developing feel for control inputs and visual references. Focus on one task at a time as directed: “This approach, I will focus solely on maintaining 18 knots airspeed and trust you to manage everything else.”

9. Maintain proper airspeed throughout approach: initial approach 60 knots reducing to 18 knots (or POH-specified approach speed) on final approach. Make small pitch adjustments to correct deviations. Cross-check airspeed indicator every 3-5 seconds. Verbalize to self: “18 knots, 18 knots, checking airspeed.”

10. Establish and maintain shallow approach angle by controlling rate of descent with collective inputs. Verify approach angle correct by checking that aim point (touchdown point) remains fixed in windscreen position—if aim point appears to rise, approach angle too steep; if aim point appears to sink, approach angle too shallow. Typical rate of descent 300-500 fpm at 18 knots.

11. Maintain ground track alignment with landing surface centerline using coordinated cyclic and pedal inputs. Make drift corrections immediately when deviation detected—small, smooth corrections more effective than large, late corrections. If crosswind present, establish crab angle to maintain ground track: heading slightly into wind, aircraft tracking straight down centerline.

12. Scan systematically during approach: instruments (airspeed, rate of descent, Nr), landing surface ahead (obstacles, surface condition), peripheral traffic awareness, instruments, repeat. Approximately 70% visual outside, 30% instrument cross-check during final approach.

13. Call out and verify stabilized approach at 100 feet AGL: “Stabilized—airspeed 18, rate of descent 400, Nr green, power good, centerline aligned, surface clear.” If any parameter is not met, make correction or execute go-around.

14. Transition visual focus to touchdown point at approximately 50 feet AGL. Continue monitoring instruments with peripheral vision but primary focus on surface ahead to judge landing flare timing and ground contact.

15. Begin gradual collective reduction at approximately 10 feet AGL, coordinating with cyclic to maintain level attitude and pedals to maintain heading. Collective reduction should be smooth and continuous—not abrupt. Goal is ground contact at approximately 18 knots groundspeed (or less with headwind) with skids level and parallel to ground track.

16. Establish ground contact with skids level, main gear and tail gear contacting simultaneously or main gear slightly first. At instant of contact, verify skids aligned with direction of travel. If lateral drift detected, do not attempt to stop with cyclic—add power and lift off if above ETL speed, or accept small drift if below 5 knots.

17. Apply immediate crosswind correction if required: moment skids touch down, apply upwind cyclic to prevent weathervaning. Amount of cyclic required increases as groundspeed decreases. Monitor cyclic position—if approaching full deflection before helicopter stops, add power and lift off.

18. Lower collective smoothly during deceleration phase, coordinating with aft cyclic to maintain level skid attitude. Do not allow aft cross-tube to contact before forward cross-tube. At approximately 5 knots groundspeed, collective should be nearly full down. Monitor rotor RPM—if decaying below green arc, add throttle.

19. Maintain directional control throughout entire rollout using cyclic inputs. Small, smooth corrections more effective than large inputs. Focus visual attention on far end of landing surface to maintain directional reference—do not stare at ground immediately ahead.

20. Complete rollout to full stop with collective full down, cyclic neutral or slightly into wind if crosswind present, pedals as needed for heading control. When fully stopped, announce position on radio if operating at towered or non-towered airport: “Riverside traffic, Helicopter 45Bravo, clear of runway 27.”

21. Execute go-around immediately if any of the following occur: unstabilized approach at 100 feet (airspeed off by more than 3 knots, excessive rate of descent, off centerline); obstacle appears on landing surface; traffic conflict develops; loss of visual references; wind shear or severe turbulence encountered; approach angle cannot be maintained; or personal comfort level exceeded. Go-around procedure: simultaneously add power to climb power, level pitch attitude or establish climb attitude, accelerate to 40 knots or maintain 18 knots depending on altitude, announce go-around on radio.

22. Self-assess each approach after completion. Identify what went well, what needs improvement, and specific focus area for next approach. Verbalize to instructor: “That approach, my airspeed control was good—stayed within 2 knots of 18. My ground track drifted left on final—I needed earlier and more aggressive drift correction. Next approach, I will focus on earlier recognition of drift and immediate correction.”

23. Practice simulated emergencies as directed by instructor: engine failure at various points on approach (immediate collective reduction, maintain Nr, continue to landing); wind shear recognition and recovery (add power, re-establish ETL, climb or go-around); traffic conflict (go-around with traffic avoidance).

24. Demonstrate progressive improvement over multiple approaches. Each approach should show refinement of technique: smaller airspeed deviations, better ground track control, smoother collective and cyclic inputs, more precise touchdown point, better directional control during rollout.

25. Request instructor demonstration if confusion or repeated errors occur: “I am not understanding how to judge the approach angle correctly. Could you demonstrate again and talk through what you are seeing?” Professional pilots ask for help when needed.

26. Review ACS standards after flight and honestly self-assess whether performance met commercial standards. Identify specific items that need additional practice and develop plan with instructor for next lesson.

Completion Standards

The student demonstrates understanding of shallow approach and running/roll-on landing operations by correctly explaining when the maneuver should be used (high density altitude, confined area operations, limited power situations, precision surface operations), aircraft limitations (maximum ground contact speed, landing gear design requirements, surface suitability criteria), and effects of landing surface texture (friction coefficients, deceleration characteristics, suitability assessment). The student accurately describes environmental effects: wind direction influence on groundspeed and landing roll distance, crosswind weathervaning forces during rollout, tailwind hazards, windshear recognition and recovery, turbulence effects including wake turbulence avoidance, density altitude impact on true airspeed and power available, and weight effects on landing energy and rollout distance.

The student identifies and mitigates all risk management elements: selects appropriate approach path and landing surface based on current aircraft performance, wind conditions, and limitations; recognizes and compensates for wind direction effects throughout approach and rollout; demonstrates awareness of windshear, turbulence, and wake turbulence hazards with appropriate avoidance or recovery techniques; briefs powerplant failure procedures specific to each phase of approach with appropriate responses; maintains traffic scan and collision avoidance throughout approach and landing phase; assesses landing surface suitability and rejects unsuitable surfaces; demonstrates understanding of dynamic rollover causes and prevention during crosswind rollout; explains ground resonance conditions and proper recovery procedures; operates within all aircraft limitations throughout the maneuver; and maintains situational awareness with proper task prioritization and recognition of distraction threats.

The student consistently executes shallow approach and running/roll-on landings to the following performance standards per FAA-S-ACS-16, Area of Operation V, Task F (CH.V.F):

Approach Phase (CH.V.F.S3, S4, S5):

• Completes appropriate checklist at proper point in traffic pattern without prompting (CH.V.F.S1)
• Makes proper radio calls at pattern entry, downwind, base, final, and clear of runway/landing area using standard phraseology and including aircraft type, position, and intentions (CH.V.F.S2)
• Maintains powerplant and main rotor RPM within normal operating limits (green arc) throughout approach, deviation not to exceed ±2% Nr or manufacturer’s specified limits, with immediate recognition and correction of any exceedance (CH.V.F.S3)
• Establishes shallow approach angle of approximately 5-10° (aim point remains fixed in windscreen, typical rate of descent 300-500 fpm at approach speed)
• Maintains approach airspeed of 18 knots indicated (or POH-specified speed) ±3 knots, with consistent cross-check and prompt correction of deviations (CH.V.F.S4)
• Correctly determines wind direction using windsock, surface indicators, or reported wind and establishes appropriate drift correction to maintain ground track aligned with landing surface centerline, deviations not to exceed 10 feet either side of centerline on final approach (CH.V.F.S5)
• Demonstrates proper rate of closure to touchdown point with aim point fixed in windscreen position throughout approach angle (CH.V.F.S4)
• Calls “stabilized” at 100 feet AGL after verifying airspeed within limits, rate of descent controlled, Nr in green arc, power sufficient for go-around, and ground track aligned

Touchdown Phase (CH.V.F.S6):

• Maintains effective translational lift throughout surface contact phase—does not slow below approximately 16 knots indicated prior to touchdown (CH.V.F.S6)
• Establishes ground contact with landing gear parallel to ground track—no lateral drift at touchdown, skids aligned within 5° of direction of travel (CH.V.F.S6)
• Achieves simultaneous or near-simultaneous contact with all landing gear (main gear and tail gear contact within 1 second of each other), avoiding tail-low or nose-low attitudes at touchdown
• Groundspeed at touchdown does not exceed 20 knots (or aircraft-specific limitation from POH/RFM), typically 15-18 knots in calm wind or less with headwind component

Rollout Phase (CH.V.F.S7):

• Applies smooth, timely, and correct cyclic control inputs immediately after surface contact to maintain ground track and prevent weathervaning, particularly in crosswind conditions—no abrupt or jerky control movements (CH.V.F.S7)
• Maintains directional control throughout rollout phase with ground track remaining within 10 feet of centerline throughout deceleration to full stop
• Lowers collective smoothly and progressively during deceleration, coordinating with cyclic to maintain level skid attitude—no tail or nose contact prior to full stop
• Maintains main rotor RPM within green arc throughout rollout and during collective reduction—does not allow Nr decay below minimum power-on RPM
• Demonstrates proper crosswind technique if applicable: immediate upwind cyclic application at touchdown, progressive increase in cyclic deflection as groundspeed decreases, recognition of approaching cyclic limits with go-around execution if necessary
• Brings helicopter to complete stop within available landing area (typically 200-400 feet rollout depending on conditions) with collective full down, cyclic neutral or slightly into wind, and pedals maintaining heading

Runway Operations (CH.V.F.S8):

• Uses proper runway incursion avoidance procedures: verifies runway clear before landing, scans for conflicting traffic during rollout, announces clear of runway after rollout complete, verifies crossing runways clear before taxi (CH.V.F.S8)
• Does not enter runway without clearance at towered airports
• Makes appropriate position reports at non-towered airports

Overall Performance:

• Demonstrates consistent technique over multiple repetitions—each approach and landing meets standards without significant coaching or intervention
• Recognizes deviations from desired performance parameters and initiates appropriate corrections without instructor prompting
• Executes go-around when appropriate: unstabilized approach, unsuitable surface discovered, traffic conflict, loss of approach control, or personal limits exceeded
• Explains all critical decision points: stabilized approach check at 100 feet, commitment point below 50 feet, crosswind correction timing, collective management during rollout
• Demonstrates commercial pilot judgment and airmanship throughout: anticipates conditions, plans ahead, maintains situational awareness, prioritizes tasks appropriately, communicates clearly
• Operates safely at all times with no instructor intervention required for safety of flight

Performance meets or exceeds all standards specified in FAA-S-ACS-16, Commercial Pilot—Helicopter Airman Certification Standards, Area of Operation V (Takeoffs, Landings, and Go-Arounds), Task F (Shallow Approach and Running/Roll-On Landing), ACS Code CH.V.F. The student is prepared to perform this maneuver to commercial pilot practical test standards.