Preflight Assessment

Objective

The commercial helicopter student will demonstrate the ability to conduct a comprehensive preflight assessment, including pilot self-assessment, airworthiness determination, thorough preflight inspection using appropriate checklists, and environmental evaluation, meeting the knowledge, risk management, and skill requirements of CH.II.A to the standards established in FAA-S-ACS-16.

Measurable Outcomes:

• Execute pilot self-assessment using the IMSAFE checklist and identify personal minimums for commercial operations
• Determine helicopter airworthiness through proper document review and regulatory compliance verification
• Complete a systematic preflight inspection using the manufacturer’s checklist, explaining the purpose of each item and identifying potential defects
• Evaluate environmental factors including weather, terrain, route, and airspace for safe commercial operations
• Apply appropriate risk management mitigation strategies for identified hazards

ACS Task Code: CH.II.A — Preflight Assessment

Content

CH.II.A.K1: Pilot Self-Assessment

IMSAFE Personal Checklist:

• Illness — Any sickness, infection, or malady that could impair performance
• Medication — 14 CFR 61.53 and 91.17 prohibit flight while using medications that affect faculties; consult AME or FAA list
• Stress — Life events, financial pressure, work deadlines, or interpersonal conflict affecting focus
• Alcohol — 14 CFR 91.17: 8 hours bottle-to-throttle, 0.04% BAC maximum, no residual effects
• Fatigue — Sleep deprivation, circadian rhythm disruption, physical exhaustion
• Emotion — Anger, depression, anxiety, overconfidence, or excessive worry

Commercial Pilot Considerations:

• Commercial pilots operate under higher scrutiny and professional responsibility
• Personal minimums should be MORE conservative than regulatory minimums
• Consider passenger/client expectations and external pressures
• Fitness for duty includes cognitive sharpness required for precision maneuvers
• Document personal minimums (weather, wind, currency, recency) and adhere to them

14 CFR 61.53: No person may act as PIC or required crewmember while having a known medical condition that would make them unable to meet medical certificate requirements.

Hazardous Attitudes and Antidotes:

• Anti-authority (“Don’t tell me”) → Follow the rules, they’re for safety
• Impulsivity (“Do something quickly”) → Not so fast, think first
• Invulnerability (“It won’t happen to me”) → It could happen to me
• Macho (“I can do it”) → Taking chances is foolish
• Resignation (“What’s the use?”) → I’m not helpless, I can make a difference

CH.II.A.K2: Determining Airworthiness

Required Documents (ARROW):

• Airworthiness Certificate — must be displayed, valid indefinitely if helicopter maintained properly (14 CFR 91.203)
• Registration Certificate — current, renewed every three years, must match N-number on aircraft
• Radio Station License — required if operating internationally or over international waters (FCC requirement)
• Operating Limitations — Rotorcraft Flight Manual (RFM) or approved equivalent, placards, markings
• Weight and Balance — current data including all equipment changes

Airworthiness Maintenance Requirements:

• Annual Inspection (14 CFR 91.409a) — within preceding 12 calendar months
• 100-Hour Inspection (14 CFR 91.409b) — if helicopter used for hire or flight instruction for hire; exceeded by no more than 10 hours to fly to inspection location
• Airworthiness Directives (ADs) — mandatory compliance, recurring or one-time (14 CFR 39)
• VOR Check (14 CFR 91.171) — if IFR equipped, within preceding 30 days; ±4° for ground checkpoint, ±6° for airborne
• Transponder/Altitude Encoder (14 CFR 91.413) — within preceding 24 calendar months
• ELT (14 CFR 91.207) — inspected within 12 months, battery replaced/recharged when 50% life expired or 1 cumulative hour use
• Pitot-Static/Altimeter (14 CFR 91.411) — if IFR operations, within preceding 24 calendar months

Maintenance Record Review:

• Check logbooks for all required inspections and signoffs
• Verify return-to-service statements after maintenance
• Review outstanding discrepancies and MEL/inoperative equipment
• Confirm no open ADs or unresolved issues
• Note total time, cycles, component times remaining before limits

Inoperative Equipment:

• 14 CFR 91.213(d) process for Part 91 operations without approved MEL:
  1. Equipment is not required by 14 CFR 91.205, type certificate, or AD
  2. Equipment is not listed as required in KOEL (Kinds of Operations Equipment List) in RFM
  3. Equipment is removed or placarded INOPERATIVE
  4. Proper maintenance record entry made
• For commercial operations carrying passengers or property, MEL may be required
• Do not confuse with deferred maintenance — items must be addressed per approved procedures

Conformity to Type Design:

• All modifications must have appropriate documentation (337 forms, STCs, field approvals)
• No unauthorized alterations
• Placards, markings, and data plates present and legible
• External modifications visible during preflight (cameras, cargo hooks, mirrors, etc.) must be approved

CH.II.A.K3: Helicopter Preflight Inspection

Preflight Philosophy for Commercial Pilots:

• Use manufacturer’s checklist as primary reference (RFM Section 4 or POH)
• Systematic pattern prevents missed items — typically clockwise or counterclockwise
• Understand WHY each item is checked, not just mechanical compliance
• Develop detective mindset: look for anomalies, leaks, damage, wear, security
• If something doesn’t look right, it probably isn’t — investigate further

Major Inspection Categories:

Documents and Cockpit Interior:

• What: ARROW documents, logbooks accessible for review
• Why: Legal requirement for flight, confirms airworthiness status
• Defects: Missing documents, expired inspections, unresolved discrepancies
• Regulations: 14 CFR 91.203, 91.9, 91.405

Fuel System:

• What: Fuel quantity, type (100LL for piston, Jet-A for turbine), fuel caps secure, fuel drains/sumps
• Why: Fuel starvation leads to forced landing; contamination damages engine; wrong fuel type catastrophic
• Defects: Water (clear globules), sediment, biological growth in turbine fuel, fuel dye mismatch (blue=100LL, straw=Jet-A), caps missing/loose
• Regulations: 14 CFR 91.205(b) fuel gauge required

Engine and Transmission:

• What: Oil level, oil cap secure, cowling secure, air filter condition, chip detectors, belts, hoses, clamps
• Why: Oil is lifeblood of engine/transmission; chip detectors reveal internal metal; loose cowlings cause aerodynamic damage
• Defects: Low oil (check cold vs. hot range), metal particles on chip detector, cracked/frayed belts, fuel/oil leaks, loose/missing fasteners
• Analogy: “Checking oil is like checking your car before a cross-country road trip — you don’t want to run dry halfway there, but at 2,000 feet there’s no shoulder to pull over on”

Main Rotor System:

• What: Blade condition, leading edge, tracking tabs/tape, blade grips, dampers, pitch links, hub integrity, mast security
• Why: Rotor system generates ALL lift; any failure is catastrophic; blades rotate at 300-500 RPM with enormous centrifugal force
• Defects: Leading edge nicks/gouges (moisture intrusion, delamination), cracks in blade skins, loose fasteners, fluid leaks from dampers, corrosion on grips, tracking tape missing
• Regulations: Manufacturer limits on blade damage depth/length

Tail Rotor System:

• What: Blade condition, gearbox security, drive shaft integrity, pitch change mechanism
• Why: Tail rotor provides anti-torque and directional control; failure leads to uncontrollable yaw
• Defects: Blade damage, gearbox leaks, drive shaft misalignment or coupling wear, loose bolts
• Analogy: “The tail rotor is your rudder — imagine if your rudder fell off in a crosswind landing”

Landing Gear:

• What: Skid tubes/skid shoes, cross tubes, struts, tires (if wheeled gear), shock absorption
• Why: Absorbs landing forces, prevents dynamic rollover, protects underside during ground ops
• Defects: Bent skids (previous hard landing), cracked welds, worn skid shoes, tire wear/pressure, corrosion on struts
• Regulations: Structural integrity per type certificate, no unapproved repairs

Flight Controls:

• What: Cyclic, collective, pedals — full and free movement, no binding, proper response
• Why: Direct mechanical link to rotor systems; any restriction or disconnect is fatal
• Defects: Binding or notchy feel, excessive freeplay, unusual resistance, foreign objects in control path
• Procedure: During run-up, confirm full control travel and proper rotor response

Instruments and Avionics:

• What: Required instruments per 14 CFR 91.205(b) day VFR: ATOMATOFLAMES + GRABCARDD
  • Airspeed indicator
  • Tachometer (each engine)
  • Oil pressure gauge (each engine)
  • Manifold pressure gauge (each altitude engine)
  • Altimeter
  • Temperature gauge (liquid-cooled engines)
  • Oil temperature gauge (air-cooled engines)
  • Fuel gauge (each tank)
  • Landing gear position indicator (if retractable)
  • Anti-collision lights (aircraft certified after 1996)
  • Magnetic compass
  • ELT
  • Seat belts/shoulder harnesses
  • Gear — landing gear position indicator
  • Rate-of-climb indicator (rotor wing)
  • Attitude indicator (rotor wing)
  • Ball — slip/skid indicator (rotor wing)
  • Checklist
  • Airspeed indicator
  • Rotor tach
  • Directional gyro
  • Deflection indicators (unusual attitude, main rotor low RPM warning)
• Why: Legal requirement, essential for safe flight, situational awareness
• Defects: Cracked glass, inoperative instruments, GPS database expired (if IFR equipped), missing placards
• Night VFR additions: Position lights, anti-collision lights, landing light (if for hire), spare fuses

External Load Equipment (if applicable):

• What: Cargo hook, mirror, electrical connections, quick-release
• Why: Commercial operations often involve external loads (14 CFR 133 operations require specific certification)
• Defects: Hook damage, mirror misalignment, frayed cables
• Regulations: 14 CFR Part 133 for external load operations; specific training required

CH.II.A.K4: Environmental Factors

Weather Assessment:

• Sources: Aviation Weather Center (aviationweather.gov), 1-800-WX-BRIEF (Leidos Flight Service), TAFs, METARs, AIRMETs, SIGMETs, PIREPs
• Critical Elements for Helicopters:
  • Wind: Helicopters more affected by gusts and turbulence due to lower mass; crosswind component limits in RFM
  • Visibility: VFR minimums per 14 CFR 91.155 (Class G: 1 SM day, 3 SM night; Class E below 10,000: 3 SM, 500 below/1,000 above/2,000 horizontal)
  • Ceiling: Low IFR ceilings eliminate safe forced landing options; commercial pilot must maintain VFR cloud clearances
  • Density Altitude: High DA reduces performance dramatically; calculate using field elevation, temperature, altimeter setting
  • Icing: Helicopters not certified for flight into known icing; carburetor ice in piston helicopters
• Personal Minimums: Commercial pilots should establish and brief minimums (e.g., 3 SM vis, 1,000’ ceiling, 15 kt winds for passenger ops)

Terrain and Route Selection:

• Considerations: Forced landing areas, population density, obstacles, altitude requirements
• Commercial Operations: 14 CFR 91.119 minimum safe altitudes still apply (congested areas: 1,000’ above highest obstacle within 2,000’ horizontal; other than congested: 500’ AGL except over open water/sparsely populated)
• Route Planning: Identify suitable emergency landing areas every 1-2 miles along route
• Obstacle Analysis: Towers, wires, power lines — wires are nearly invisible and deadly; use sectional chart symbology

Airspace:

• Review Class B, C, D airspace requirements (14 CFR 91.129, 91.130, 91.131)
• Special use airspace — prohibited, restricted, MOAs, alert areas
• TFRs — check NOTAMs and tfr.faa.gov before each flight
• Commercial operations may require specific airspace authorizations

Obstructions:

• Towers depicted on sectional charts (1,000’ AGL and higher)
• Power lines — often unlighted, difficult to see, especially near airports or roads
• Guy wires extend from towers at angles
• Detection: Look for supporting towers/poles, shadow lines, sagging between poles

Risk Management Elements (CH.II.A.R1-R5)

CH.II.A.R1: Pilot Risks:

• Mitigation: Use IMSAFE checklist; establish personal minimums; refuse flight when not fit; maintain currency (14 CFR 61.57: 3 takeoffs/landings within 90 days to carry passengers)
• Commercial Considerations: External pressure from clients/employers; resist “get-there-itis”; pilot authority under 14 CFR 91.3

CH.II.A.R2: Aircraft Risks:

• Mitigation: Thorough preflight; resolve all discrepancies before flight; understand performance limitations from RFM; confirm W&B within limits
• Commercial Considerations: Aircraft may be used by multiple pilots; check for unreported damage; review previous flight squawks

CH.II.A.R3: Environmental Risks:

• Weather: Use multiple weather sources; get PIREP data; apply conservative margins; recognize deteriorating conditions
• Icing: Avoid visible moisture and temps near freezing; understand carburetor ice conditions for piston helicopters (40-70°F with humidity)
• Airports/Heliports: Verify suitability for helicopter; check for NOTAMs affecting landing areas; confirm surface conditions
• Airspace: Brief airspace along route; identify Class B/C/D areas requiring clearances; check TFRs
• Terrain/Obstacles: Maintain safe altitude margins; identify wire hazards; plan forced landing areas

CH.II.A.R4: External Pressures:

• Mitigation: Recognize pressure from passengers, schedule, clients, employer; apply ADM (Aeronautical Decision Making) and SRM (Single-Pilot Resource Management)
• Commercial Example: Client wants flight despite marginal weather; pilot exercises 14 CFR 91.3 PIC authority to delay/cancel
• “The 5 Ps”: Plan, Plane, Pilot, Passengers, Programming — assess each for risks

CH.II.A.R5: Aviation Security Concerns:

• TSA Regulations: 49 CFR 1552 (flight training security for non-U.S. citizens)
• Airport Watch: Report suspicious activity (1-866-GA-SECURE)
• Aircraft Security: Ensure aircraft is secured when unattended; locks, chocks, tiedowns
• Sensitive Areas: Avoid overflight of stadiums, nuclear plants, government facilities, prisons (see 91.141, 91.145, NOTAMs)
• Flight Plan Filing: Recommended for cross-country, required for extended overwater; aids SAR if missing

Schedule

Equipment

Required Aircraft:

• Helicopter appropriate for commercial training (e.g., Robinson R44, Schweizer 300C, Bell 206, Airbus H125)
• Current Rotorcraft Flight Manual (RFM) or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH)
• Manufacturer’s preflight checklist (laminated or in RFM Section 4)
• Aircraft maintenance logbooks (airframe, engine, rotor, component logs)

Required Documents (on aircraft):

• Airworthiness Certificate
• Registration Certificate
• Operating Limitations (placards, RFM)
• Weight and Balance data

Instructor Materials:

• FAA-S-ACS-16: Commercial Pilot – Rotorcraft Helicopter Airman Certification Standards
• FAA-H-8083-21B: Rotorcraft Flying Handbook
• FAA-H-8083-25B: Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Chapters 2, 8, 17)
• 14 CFR Part 61 (Subparts A, F)
• 14 CFR Part 91 (Subparts A, B, E)
• ASA Helicopter Oral Exam Guide (Commercial edition)
• Current sectional chart for local area
• Sample weather products (METARs, TAFs, winds aloft, SIGMETs)
• Flashlight (for inspecting dark areas, demonstrating night inspection techniques)
• Fuel tester/drain cup

Visual Aids:

• Photos or diagrams of common defects (blade damage, leaks, worn components)
• Chart of required inspections with intervals (annual, 100-hour, AD, VOR, transponder, ELT)
• IMSAFE checklist poster or handout
• PAVE risk assessment worksheet
• Sample inoperative equipment placard

References:

• Aircraft-specific service bulletins and AD list
• Manufacturer’s maintenance manual (for reference on allowable damage limits)
• Airport/Facility Directory or Chart Supplement for local heliports

Instructor Actions

1. Begin with objective and completion standards review: “Today we’re covering CH.II.A, Preflight Assessment. By the end, you’ll conduct a complete preflight that meets commercial standards — that means not just going through the motions, but understanding why each item matters and what defects you’re looking for. As a commercial pilot, you’re held to higher standards, and passengers trust you with their lives.”

2. Introduce IMSAFE checklist: “Before you touch the helicopter, assess yourself. Use IMSAFE: Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, Emotion. Be honest — if you’re not 100%, you shouldn’t fly. This isn’t just regulatory compliance under 14 CFR 61.53; it’s professional integrity. What’s your personal 8-hour rule on alcohol? The FAA says 8 hours; I say 12-24 depending on how much you had. Residual effects matter.”

3. Discuss personal minimums: “Regulatory minimums are not always safe minimums. You need personal minimums for weather, winds, currency, and fatigue. Write them down. For commercial ops, make them more conservative than private. Example: If you’re not comfortable in 15-knot gusty crosswinds with passengers, don’t do it just because the book says the helicopter can handle 17 knots.”

4. Cover hazardous attitudes with examples: “Recognize hazardous attitudes. Anti-authority: ‘I don’t need to follow that checklist, I know this helicopter.’ Macho: ‘I can fly in weather worse than this.’ Invulnerability: ‘Accidents happen to other pilots.’ If you catch yourself thinking these, apply the antidote. Follow the rules, think first, it could happen to you.”

5. Transition to airworthiness determination: “Now let’s talk aircraft. Before every flight, you must determine the helicopter is airworthy. That starts with documents — ARROW. Airworthiness certificate on display, Registration current, Radio license if international, Operating limitations available, Weight and balance data accessible.”

6. Demonstrate document check on actual aircraft: Walk to helicopter and retrieve documents. “See this airworthiness certificate? Issued when the helicopter was manufactured or imported. It’s valid indefinitely as long as the aircraft is maintained properly. Registration? This one expires in 2025; you can see the expiration date. If this were expired, we couldn’t legally fly.”

7. Review maintenance requirements systematically: “Next, required inspections. Annual within preceding 12 calendar months — not 365 days, 12 calendar months. If the annual was done March 2024, it’s due by March 31, 2025. 100-hour inspection if used for hire or flight instruction for hire. You can exceed the 100-hour by up to 10 hours, but only to fly to the inspection location — not to finish a charter job.”

8. Explain AD compliance: “Airworthiness Directives are mandatory. They address unsafe conditions. One-time or recurring. Check the AD list in the logbook — every AD applicable to this helicopter must show compliance. If you find an open AD with no sign-off, the aircraft is not airworthy.”

9. Discuss inoperative equipment using 91.213(d): “What if you find something broken during preflight? For Part 91 without an MEL, use the 14 CFR 91.213(d) process: Not required by Part 91, not required by type certificate or AD, not in the KOEL, and properly placarded and deactivated with a logbook entry. Can you fly with a broken landing light during the day? Yes, if it’s not required for day VFR and you placard it. At night for hire? No — night flight for hire requires a landing light.”

10. Transition to physical preflight inspection: “Now we’ll walk through the actual preflight. I’ll demonstrate using the manufacturer’s checklist, and I’ll explain not just what we check, but why. Your job is to develop a detective mindset — you’re looking for anything out of the ordinary.”

11. Begin preflight demonstration — fuel system: “Starting with fuel. Check quantity visually and verify gauge accuracy. Type: for this piston helicopter, we need 100LL, which is blue. Jet-A is straw-colored — wrong fuel will destroy the engine. Sump each tank. Look for water — it appears as clear globules and sinks below the blue fuel. Sediment? Biological growth in turbine helicopters? Any contamination grounds the aircraft.”

12. Demonstrate engine/transmission inspection: “Engine compartment: oil level. Check it cold on this model — see the markings? Between ADD and FULL. Any metal on the dipstick? That’s early warning of internal wear. Chip detectors — these magnetic plugs attract metal particles. Clean means healthy engine. Particles? We’re not flying until maintenance investigates. Cowling fasteners — every one must be secure. A loose cowling at 100 knots can rip off and strike the tail rotor.”

13. Inspect main rotor system with detailed explanations: “Main rotor blades: this is what keeps you alive. Leading edge — run your hand gently along it. Feel for nicks or gouges. Small dings can let moisture in, causing delamination. Check the manufacturer’s limits; anything beyond that, we don’t fly. Tracking tape or tabs — these must be intact to verify blade tracking. Blade grips, dampers, pitch links — look for cracks, leaks, loose hardware. A failed damper causes ground resonance, which can destroy the helicopter in seconds.”

14. Emphasize tail rotor criticality: “Tail rotor: this is your directional control. Lose it, and you’re just a spinning object trying to find a place to crash. Check blades for damage just like main rotor. Gearbox — look for oil leaks. Drive shaft — check alignment and coupling condition. Pitch change mechanism — ensure nothing is binding.”

15. Inspect landing gear and explain structural concerns: “Landing gear: these skids take all the abuse of landing. Look for bends, cracks at welds, worn skid shoes. A bent skid might indicate a previous hard landing or dynamic rollover incident — that’s a maintenance issue. Cross tubes must be straight and secure. Any structural damage here is no-go.”

16. Check flight controls with full explanation: “Flight controls: cyclic, collective, pedals. We’ll check for full and free movement during run-up, but during preflight, look inside and outside for obstructions. Make sure nothing is in the control path — a wrench left under the seat could jam the cyclic with fatal results.”

17. Review required instruments: “Instruments: for day VFR, we need ATOMATOFLAMES plus rotorcraft-specific items. Airspeed, tach, oil pressure, manifold pressure, altimeter, temperature, fuel, anti-collision lights if certified after ‘96, compass, ELT, seatbelts. Plus rotor tachometer, rate of climb, attitude indicator, slip-skid ball, directional gyro. If any required instrument is broken, apply 91.213(d) or don’t fly.”

18. Discuss environmental assessment: “Before starting, assess the environment. Weather: check METARs, TAFs, winds aloft. For helicopters, wind is critical — we’re more affected by gusts than airplanes. Personal minimums for passenger flights? Mine are 3 miles vis, 1,000-foot ceiling, 15-knot winds. Density altitude: calculate it. High DA kills performance — your power available might not exceed power required for hover.”

19. Cover terrain and route planning: “Terrain and route: identify forced landing areas every mile or two. Avoid wires — they’re invisible killers. If you see towers or poles, assume wires connect them. Population density affects where you can legally fly per 91.119: over congested areas, 1,000 feet above highest obstacle within 2,000 feet horizontal. Other areas, 500 AGL. You can go lower in emergencies, but that’s your only exception.”

20. Airspace and TFR briefing: “Airspace: review your route. Class B, C, D require clearances. Check TFRs at tfr.faa.gov every flight — presidential TFRs pop up with little notice, and busting one is a certificate action. Special use airspace: prohibited areas are no-go, restricted require clearance if active, MOAs are caution areas.”

21. Apply PAVE risk management framework: “Risk management: use PAVE. Pilot — am I fit? Aircraft — is it airworthy and suitable? enVironment — weather, terrain, airspace safe? External pressures — am I being rushed or pressured? If any corner of PAVE is red, mitigate or don’t fly. You have final authority under 91.3 — use it.”

22. Discuss external pressures scenario: “Commercial flying brings pressure. Client wants to go, weather is marginal, you’re worried about losing the job. What do you do? You say no. Explain the risk, offer alternatives, but don’t compromise safety. A good client respects professional judgment. A bad client isn’t worth your certificate or your life.”

23. Address security concerns: “Security: lock the aircraft when you leave. Report suspicious activity to airport security or 1-866-GA-SECURE. Don’t overfly stadiums during events, don’t loiter over prisons or power plants. Check NOTAMs for TFRs over VIP movements or special events. If a non-U.S. citizen is training, TSA vetting under 49 CFR 1552 is required before solo.”

24. Transition to student practice: “Now it’s your turn. Start with the documents — show me ARROW and verify airworthiness using the logbooks. I’ll supervise, but you’re doing the work. Talk me through what you’re checking and why.”

25. Supervise student document review: Observe as student retrieves documents, prompting as needed: “What’s the expiration date on the registration? When was the last annual? Show me the 100-hour sign-off. Are there any open ADs?”

26. Transition to physical inspection: “Good. Now conduct the preflight using the manufacturer’s checklist. I want you to verbalize what you’re checking and why. Don’t just look — explain what you’re looking for. Pretend you’re teaching me.”

27. Observe student preflight and prompt for understanding: As student inspects fuel: “Why do we sump fuel? What are we looking for? What does water look like versus fuel?” At main rotor: “Why is leading edge condition critical? What happens if moisture gets into a blade?” At tail rotor: “What would happen if this gearbox were leaking oil?”

28. Correct technique and reinforce learning: If student rushes: “Slow down. This isn’t a race. Every item matters — miss something critical and you might not come back.” If student finds discrepancy: “Good catch. What would you do next? Look up the limits in the RFM, document it, and consult maintenance.”

29. Conduct debrief and assessment: “Let’s debrief. What did you find during preflight? Were there any discrepancies? How would you handle them? Did you feel rushed or pressured? How did you manage the assessment process? What areas do you need to review further?”

30. Assign post-lesson review: “Before next lesson, review 14 CFR 91.213 on inoperative equipment and study the AD list for this helicopter. Bring questions. We’ll start next time with a student-led briefing on airworthiness.”

Student Actions

1. Actively participate in ground instruction: Take notes on IMSAFE checklist, personal minimums, airworthiness requirements, and preflight inspection items; ask clarifying questions.

2. Review ARROW documents on aircraft: Locate and verify airworthiness certificate, registration, operating limitations, and weight and balance data; state expiration dates and applicability.

3. Examine aircraft maintenance logbooks: Under instructor supervision, review airframe, engine, and component logs; identify last annual inspection date, 100-hour inspection (if applicable), AD compliance sign-offs, and any open discrepancies.

4. Assess airworthiness determination: State whether aircraft is airworthy based on document review and inspection compliance; identify any inoperative equipment and apply 14 CFR 91.213(d) process.

5. Perform systematic preflight inspection: Using manufacturer’s checklist, inspect aircraft in organized pattern (typically nose, right side, tail, left side, cockpit); verbalize what is being checked and why.

6. Inspect fuel system: Check fuel quantity visually and on gauge, verify correct fuel type (100LL blue for piston, Jet-A straw for turbine), sump all fuel drains and check for water/contamination, ensure fuel caps are secure.

7. Inspect engine and transmission: Check engine oil level (cold vs. hot range per RFM), inspect chip detectors for metal particles, examine cowling security and fasteners, check belts and hoses for wear, identify any fluid leaks.

8. Inspect main rotor system: Examine blade leading edges for nicks/gouges, check blade surfaces for cracks or delamination, verify tracking tape/tabs intact, inspect blade grips and dampers for leaks or damage, check pitch links and hardware security, examine hub and mast area.

9. Inspect tail rotor system: Check tail rotor blades for damage, inspect gearbox for leaks, examine drive shaft and couplings, verify pitch change mechanism free movement, check all hardware security.

10. Inspect landing gear: Check skid tubes for bends or cracks, examine welds and cross tubes for damage, verify skid shoes not excessively worn (if equipped), check struts and attachment points.

11. Verify flight control freedom: Check cyclic, collective, and pedals for obstructions or binding (full check during run-up); visually inspect control paths for foreign objects.

12. Confirm required instruments and equipment: Verify all instruments required by 14 CFR 91.205 for day VFR are present and operational (ATOMATOFLAMES + rotorcraft-specific); check placards and markings legible; identify any inoperative items and assess airworthiness impact.

13. Assess weather and environmental conditions: Review current METARs, TAFs, and winds aloft for departure, en route, and destination; calculate density altitude; identify any weather hazards (icing, thunderstorms, low ceilings/visibility).

14. Plan route and identify terrain considerations: Review sectional chart for route, identify Class B/C/D airspace requiring clearances, check for TFRs at tfr.faa.gov, note terrain elevations and obstacle heights, identify suitable forced landing areas along route.

15. Conduct pilot self-assessment: Apply IMSAFE checklist and honestly assess fitness for flight; identify personal minimums and verify conditions meet those minimums; recognize any external pressures and plan mitigation.

16. Apply risk management using PAVE: Assess Pilot (fit for duty?), Aircraft (airworthy?), enVironment (weather/terrain/airspace safe?), External pressures (any factors compromising safety?); identify risks and state mitigation strategies or no-go decision.

17. Document any discrepancies found: Note any unairworthy conditions, inoperative equipment, or anomalies; state required corrective actions and regulatory compliance (e.g., logbook entry, placard, maintenance required).

18. Seek instructor feedback: Ask questions about any unclear items during preflight; request clarification on acceptable limits for wear or damage; discuss risk management scenarios.

19. Demonstrate professional standards: Show thoroughness, attention to detail, systematic approach, and conservative decision-making consistent with commercial pilot responsibilities.

20. Prepare for next lesson: Review assigned material (14 CFR 91.213, aircraft AD list), practice IMSAFE and PAVE assessments, study RFM performance charts and limitations.

Completion Standards

The student’s performance will be evaluated against FAA-S-ACS-16, Area of Operation II, Task A (CH.II.A). The lesson is complete when the student demonstrates the ability to:

Knowledge (CH.II.A.K1-K4):

• Explain the IMSAFE checklist and apply it to determine personal fitness for flight, identifying factors that would preclude safe operation
• State personal minimums for weather, winds, and currency appropriate for commercial operations, demonstrating more conservative standards than regulatory minimums
• Describe the ARROW documents required by 14 CFR 91.203 and verify their presence and currency on the aircraft
• Explain required inspections per 14 CFR 91.409 (annual, 100-hour), 14 CFR 39 (ADs), and other regulatory inspections (VOR, transponder, ELT, pitot-static) with correct intervals
• Apply 14 CFR 91.213(d) process for inoperative equipment without an MEL, correctly determining airworthiness when discrepancies are found
• Identify all items on the manufacturer’s preflight checklist and explain the reason for checking each item
• Describe methods for detecting common defects (e.g., water in fuel appears as clear globules, metal on chip detector indicates internal wear, blade leading edge damage risks delamination)
• State regulatory references for airworthiness requirements (14 CFR Parts 39, 43, 91 Subparts A and E)
• Obtain and interpret weather information (METARs, TAFs, winds aloft, AIRMETs, SIGMETs) for preflight planning
• Calculate density altitude and explain its impact on helicopter performance
• Identify terrain features, obstacles, and airspace along planned route using sectional chart

Risk Management (CH.II.A.R1-R5):

• Assess pilot fitness using IMSAFE and recognize hazardous attitudes, applying appropriate antidotes
• Evaluate aircraft airworthiness through document review and physical inspection, refusing flight if aircraft is not airworthy
• Identify environmental hazards (weather below personal minimums, high density altitude, icing potential, terrain/obstacles, airspace conflicts) and state mitigation strategies or no-go decision
• Recognize external pressures (schedule, client demands, financial) and demonstrate ability to resist “get-there-itis” by applying PIC authority under 14 CFR 91.3
• Address aviation security concerns including aircraft security when unattended, recognition of suspicious activity, and avoidance of sensitive areas (stadiums, TFRs, prohibited areas)

Skills (CH.II.A.S1-S4):

• CH.II.A.S1: Conduct systematic preflight inspection using appropriate manufacturer’s checklist with no items omitted; demonstrate organized pattern (e.g., clockwise or counterclockwise flow)
• CH.II.A.S2: Verify aircraft is in condition for safe flight by confirming:
  • All required documents present and current (ARROW)
  • Required inspections current (annual, 100-hour if applicable, ADs complied with)
  • No unairworthy discrepancies present
  • All required instruments and equipment operational or properly placarded/deactivated per 14 CFR 91.213(d)
  • Aircraft conforms to type design with no unauthorized modifications
  • Fuel type and quantity correct, no contamination
  • No structural damage, leaks, or wear beyond manufacturer limits
  • Flight controls free and correct throughout full range of motion
• CH.II.A.S3: Perform self-assessment demonstrating honest evaluation of personal fitness using IMSAFE; identify personal minimums and verify compliance before flight
• CH.II.A.S4: Continuously assess environment throughout preflight process by:
  • Reviewing weather products and identifying changes or hazards
  • Calculating performance requirements (density altitude, hover power, takeoff distance)
  • Identifying route obstacles and forced landing areas
  • Checking for TFRs and airspace restrictions
  • Applying PAVE risk management to determine overall safety of flight

ACS Performance Standards (CH.II.A):

• Complete preflight assessment in a manner that ensures aircraft is airworthy and conditions are suitable for safe flight
• Verbalize purpose of each checklist item during inspection with 100% accuracy
• Detect simulated or actual defects (e.g., low oil, fuel contamination, loose fasteners, blade damage) during inspection
• Correctly determine airworthiness when presented with inoperative equipment scenarios using 14 CFR 91.213(d)
• Demonstrate systematic, thorough approach with no missed items
• Exhibit professional judgment consistent with commercial pilot responsibilities

Instructional Note: Student must meet all knowledge, risk management, and skill elements before progressing to subsequent lessons. Any deficiencies in preflight assessment compromise all subsequent flight operations. Emphasize that commercial operations demand higher standards — thoroughness, professionalism, and conservative decision-making are non-negotiable.