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CFII.VIII.C both lesson 90–120 minutes

MISSED APPROACH

INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES · Task MISSED APPROACH

Completion Standards

CFII candidate demonstrates knowledge of all CFII.VIII.C items and ability to teach the concept effectively to instrument helicopter students. All skill elements demonstrated to PTS standards.

Objective

The CFII candidate will demonstrate instructional knowledge and teaching ability for helicopter missed approach procedures by explaining and demonstrating the conditions requiring a missed approach, proper execution techniques, ATC communication requirements, and common student errors. Upon completion, the candidate will meet the performance standards of PTS Task CFII.VIII.C by correctly teaching missed approach execution while maintaining instrument proficiency standards: altitude ±100 feet, heading ±10°, airspeed ±10 knots, and proper ATC communication procedures.

Content

Pertinent Information on the Selected Instrument Approach Chart

Teaching Point: The missed approach information is contained in three critical locations on every instrument approach procedure chart. Your student must develop a systematic scan pattern to extract this information during approach briefing.

Missed Approach Instructions Box: Located in the planview or profile view, this contains the textual missed approach instructions. Format: “MISSED APPROACH: Climb to [altitude] direct [fix] and hold” or similar. This is the regulatory procedure—ATC cannot vector the aircraft until the pilot reports established in the published missed approach.

Profile View Depiction: Shows the missed approach ground track, altitude restrictions, and holding pattern if applicable. The solid line with arrows indicates the required flight path. Dashed lines show optional routes or ATC vectors after establishing in the hold.

Critical Elements to Brief:

Helicopter-Specific Consideration: Unlike airplanes that accelerate in level flight before climbing, helicopters transition directly from approach airspeed to climb airspeed while initiating climb. This requires precise collective and pedal coordination to prevent altitude loss during the transition.

Conditions Requiring a Missed Approach

Teaching Analogy: Think of the missed approach as your “escape route” from the approach canyon. Just as a VFR pilot wouldn’t fly into deteriorating weather without an out, an IFR pilot doesn’t descend below minimums without the required visual references to continue safely.

Regulatory Requirements (14 CFR 91.175): A pilot must immediately execute a missed approach when:

  1. Upon reaching the MAP without required flight visibility: The pilot determines actual flight visibility is less than published minimums
  2. Upon reaching the MAP without required visual references: Cannot distinctly identify the runway environment elements specified in 91.175(c)
  3. When visual references are lost after descending below MDA/DA: If the runway environment is lost at any point after descending below minimums, immediate missed approach is mandatory
  4. When the approach becomes unstable: Helicopter is outside normal parameters (excessive drift, sink rate >1000 fpm, airspeed deviation >10 knots)
  5. When ATC issues missed approach instructions: Controller directive based on traffic, spacing, or safety concerns
  6. When landing cannot be made from the approach: Obstacles, closed runway, wrong runway, or inability to make a normal landing within the touchdown zone

Required Visual References (91.175(c)): To descend below MDA/DA and continue, the pilot must have at least one of:

Teaching Emphasis: “Seeing the airport” is insufficient. The regulation specifies distinct, identifiable runway environment elements. A vague shape through fog or a beacon in the distance does not satisfy 91.175.

Helicopter-Specific Decision Points:

Safety Culture Point: The missed approach is not a failure—it’s professional decision-making. Students must internalize that executing a missed approach demonstrates superior judgment compared to attempting an unstable or unsafe landing.

Initiation of the Missed Approach

Teaching Sequence: Teach the missed approach as a four-step immediate action sequence—COPA:

C - Climb Power: Smoothly apply climb power (do not slam collective—induces rapid right yaw). Establish climb power setting appropriate to density altitude and weight.

O - On Airspeed: Transition to climb airspeed (typically Vy or Vy+10 knots for single-pilot workload). Use cyclic to establish climb attitude.

P - Pedals: Counteract torque effect with left pedal. Anticipate increased pedal requirement—this is where students commonly lose heading control.

A - Attitude: Cross-check attitude indicator, VSI, and altimeter. Establish positive rate of climb (300-500 fpm minimum initially, then optimize for published climb gradient).

Power Application Technique: Unlike fixed-wing where power is “firewall,” helicopters require smooth, progressive collective application to prevent over-torque and maintain heading control. Students must coordinate collective with pedal input.

Drag Reduction: In helicopters, drag reduction means:

Critical Teaching Point: Power application and pitch attitude must be simultaneous. Students who add power while still descending waste altitude. Students who pitch up before power application can approach Vne or lose excessive airspeed.

Altitude Loss During Transition: Expect 20-50 feet of altitude loss during the transition from approach descent to established climb. This is why descending below MDA prior to the MAP is dangerous—inadequate terrain clearance buffer.

Helicopter Workload Consideration: Single-pilot IFR in helicopters involves higher workload than airplanes due to lack of trim. Students must establish a manageable scan: attitude, power, heading, altitude, navigation—in that priority order.

Required Report to ATC

Phraseology Standard: Upon initiating a missed approach, the pilot must immediately report:

Format: “[Callsign], missed approach”

Example: “Approach, Helicopter 12345, missed approach.”

Timing: Report as soon as workload permits after initiating climb. Do NOT delay climb to make radio call. Priority is: fly the helicopter, navigate, communicate.

ATC Will Respond With:

Student Common Error: Requesting instructions instead of stating the missed approach. The pilot declares the missed approach; ATC then provides instructions.

If No Response from ATC:

  1. Continue published missed approach procedure
  2. Attempt contact on tower frequency (if applicable)
  3. Squawk 7600 if communication failure suspected
  4. Follow missed approach to holding fix
  5. Comply with lost communication procedures (14 CFR 91.185)

Additional Required Reports:

Teaching Emphasis: ATC communication is third priority. Students who fixate on the radio while initiating missed approach lose aircraft control. Teach: climb, navigate, communicate—in that order.

Compliance with the Published or Alternate Missed Approach Procedure

Published Missed Approach Compliance:

The published missed approach procedure is mandatory unless:

  1. ATC issues alternate instructions AND
  2. The pilot can safely comply AND
  3. The pilot explicitly accepts the clearance

Regulatory Basis: The published missed approach ensures obstacle clearance and airspace separation. Deviation without ATC coordination creates collision risk.

Typical Missed Approach Procedures:

Climb and Hold: “Climb to 3000, direct WALDE and hold.”

Climb and Track: “Climb to 2500, then climbing right turn to 4000 direct BOS VOR.”

Climb Runway Heading: “Climb to 1500 runway heading.”

Multiple Phases: Some missed approaches have stepdown fixes: “Climb to 1800, then climbing right turn to 4000 direct JIFFY, hold west as published.”

Helicopter-Specific Technique: Due to lower climb performance compared to airplanes, helicopters may require earlier turn initiation to avoid overshooting fixes. Plan turns to begin 200-300 feet prior to altitude restrictions.

Alternate Missed Approach Instructions (ATC-Issued):

ATC may issue alternate instructions during approach briefing: “If missed approach is required, climb runway heading to 2000, expect vectors to final approach course.”

ATC Vectors During Missed Approach:

ATC may vector the aircraft after reporting missed approach established. Pilot must:

Communication Failure During Missed Approach:

If communication is lost during missed approach:

  1. Continue published missed approach to holding fix
  2. Squawk 7600
  3. Hold at missed approach fix as published
  4. Depart holding pattern at EFC time or as per filed flight plan
  5. Comply with 91.185 (IFR lost comm procedures)

Notification of ATC if Unable to Comply

Teaching Point: Professional pilots acknowledge their limitations and aircraft capabilities. Accepting a clearance you cannot meet creates hazardous situations.

Situations Requiring “Unable” Response:

Climb Gradient Exceeds Aircraft Performance:

Published missed approaches may require climb gradients exceeding standard 200’/NM. Example: “Climb gradient 350’ per NM to 4000.”

Calculation Method (Teach Students):

Helicopter Performance Factors:

Unable to Comply with Assigned Altitude:

If ATC assigns altitude below MEA/MOCA or above aircraft capability: “Unable [altitude], request [alternate].”

Unable to Accept Vectors:

Due to weather, aircraft limitations, or spatial disorientation: “Unable vectors at this time, continuing published missed approach.”

Unable to Accept Approach Clearance:

If aircraft performance, weather, or fuel state makes approach unsafe: “Helicopter 345, unable approach, request vectors for [alternate airport].”

Phraseology Examples:

Teaching Emphasis: The word “unable” is powerful and legally significant. It means the pilot has determined compliance would be unsafe. ATC must provide alternate instructions. Never accept a clearance you cannot safely execute.

Missed Approach Checklist Philosophy:

Unlike normal checklists performed methodically, the missed approach checklist is a flow-then-verify procedure. Immediate actions (power, attitude, configuration) are performed from memory, then checklist confirms completion.

Typical Helicopter Missed Approach Checklist:

Immediate Actions (Memory Items):

  1. Power — Climb power, smooth collective application
  2. Attitude — Climb attitude, Vy airspeed
  3. Trim — Pedals for coordinated flight (no trim wheel in most helicopters)
  4. Configuration — Landing light off/up (if extended)

Verify Actions (Checklist):

  1. Power — Climb power set, within limits (torque, TGT, rotor RPM)
  2. Airspeed — Vy ±5 knots
  3. ATC — Missed approach reported
  4. Navigation — Course/heading to missed approach fix
  5. Altitude — Climbing to assigned altitude
  6. Fuel — Sufficient for missed approach and alternate plan

Expanded Missed Approach Checklist (Example for R44):

MISSED APPROACH — R44
□ COLLECTIVE — Climb power (22-23" MP)
□ ATTITUDE — Climb attitude, 60 KIAS
□ PEDALS — Coordinated flight
□ THROTTLE — 102-104% rotor RPM
□ ATC — "Missed approach" reported
□ COURSE — Turn to missed approach course
□ ALTITUDE — Climb to assigned altitude
□ FUEL — Check quantity, plan alternate
□ AIRFRAME — Landing light retracted

Teaching Students Checklist Discipline:

  1. Immediate Action Items: These happen automatically—power, attitude, configuration. No time to read checklist while at MDA.

  2. Cleanup/Verify Items: Once established in climb, stabilized, and on course, run checklist to verify all items completed.

  3. Sterile Cockpit: No non-essential communication during missed approach initiation. Focus on aircraft control and navigation.

Common Student Error: Attempting to read checklist while initiating missed approach. This diverts attention from flight instruments and causes altitude/heading deviations.

Single-Pilot Resource Management: In helicopters without autopilot, workload during missed approach is extremely high. Checklist use must be efficient:

Importance of Positive Aircraft Control

Teaching Analogy: The missed approach is like a sports play under pressure—you’ve trained the mechanics, now execute them smoothly under stress. Positive control means deliberate, confident inputs, not tentative or panicked reactions.

Positive Control Defined:

Positive aircraft control during missed approach means:

Why Positive Control Is Critical:

  1. Obstacle Clearance: Missed approach procedures assume the aircraft climbs immediately and follows the specified ground track. Deviations compromise obstacle clearance.

  2. Traffic Separation: ATC expects the aircraft on the missed approach course. Heading deviations create conflict with other IFR traffic.

  3. Spatial Disorientation Risk: The transition from approach descent to missed approach climb, combined with potential turning, creates high vestibular stress. Positive instrument scan prevents disorientation.

  4. Single-Pilot Workload: In helicopters, the pilot is flying manually (no autopilot in most trainers), navigating, communicating, and decision-making simultaneously. Loss of aircraft control cascades into complete task saturation.

Helicopter Control Challenges During Missed Approach:

Power-Induced Right Yaw: Applying climb power requires immediate left pedal. Students who lag on pedal input swing 20-30° right, losing the missed approach course.

Pitch-Power Coordination: Unlike airplanes where pitch and power are somewhat independent, helicopters require simultaneous collective and cyclic inputs. Pitch up without power → rotor RPM decay. Power without pitch → altitude loss before establishing climb.

Trim Workload: No elevator trim or aileron trim. The pilot is manually flying the entire missed approach. Fatigue and distraction easily lead to altitude/heading deviations.

Teaching Technique for Positive Control:

Step 1 — Briefing: Chair-fly the missed approach before executing. “At the MAP, I’ll smoothly add climb power, establish climb attitude for 60 knots, add left pedal for coordinated flight, and turn to heading 090 for the VOR.”

Step 2 — Verbalization: During execution, narrate actions: “Missed approach. Power, pitch, pedals. Climbing, turning right to 090. 500 feet per minute climb, 60 knots.”

Step 3 — Scan Discipline: Primary instruments during missed approach:

Step 4 — Error Recognition: If heading deviates >10°, altitude deviates >100 feet, or airspeed deviates >10 knots—acknowledge, correct, and stabilize before continuing.

Positive Control vs. Mechanical Control:

Teach students: Positive control feels smooth and deliberate. If you’re making rapid, large corrections, you’ve lost positive control—stabilize first, then proceed.

Common Errors: Failure to Have Essential Knowledge of the Information on the Instrument Approach Chart

Error Description: Student begins approach without thoroughly briefing missed approach procedure, climb gradients, or holding pattern parameters.

Consequences:

Correction Technique:

Structured Approach Briefing: Teach students the “5 T’s + M” briefing format:

  1. Type of approach (ILS, VOR, GPS, etc.)
  2. Tuning — frequencies, courses, identifiers
  3. Time — FAF to MAP timing (if applicable)
  4. Transition — IAF to FAF routing
  5. Touchdown — minimums, runway environment
  6. Missed — full missed approach procedure

Missed Approach Brief (Expanded):

“Missed approach: Climb to 2500 feet, direct ALPHA, hold northwest as published. Climb gradient: 300 feet per nautical mile to 2500. Right-hand turns, one-minute legs. If unable to make gradient, I’ll request vectors from approach.”

Demonstration During Instruction:

Show student how incomplete briefing leads to error:

Memory Aids:

Teach simple acronym for missed approach brief: CATCH

Common Errors: Failure to Recognize Conditions Requiring a Missed Approach

Error Description: Student continues descent beyond MAP without visual references, or attempts to salvage an unstable approach rather than executing missed approach.

Psychological Factors:

Teaching the Recognition Criteria:

Objective Standard for MAP: Train students to make MAP determination binary:

“At the MAP, I have required visual references IAW 91.175(c) — YES or NO. No ‘maybe,’ no ‘almost.’ If NO, I execute missed approach immediately.”

Visual Reference Checklist (Teach Students to Verbalize):

At MAP: “Do I have:

If answer to any is “YES” and flight visibility is sufficient → may descend below MDA toward landing.

If answer to all is “NO” → immediate missed approach.

Unstable Approach Criteria:

Teach students quantifiable instability triggers:

If unstable below 500 feet AGL → mandatory missed approach

Scenario-Based Teaching:

Present scenarios during ground instruction:

Scenario 1: “You’re at MDA, 1/2 mile from MAP. You see a rotating beacon and vague shape of buildings. Do you continue?”

Scenario 2: “You’re at MDA, you see approach lights clearly. You descend 50 feet and lose sight of the lights in fog. What action?”

Scenario 3: “You’re 300 feet AGL on final, airspeed fluctuating 50-70 knots, sink rate 1200 fpm, but you see the runway. Continue?”

Demonstration Technique:

During flight training, instructor simulates scenarios:

Common Errors: Failure to Promptly Initiate a Missed Approach

Error Description: Student recognizes missed approach is required but delays initiation, continuing descent or level flight while deciding.

Consequences:

Typical Delay Scenarios:

  1. Decision Paralysis: Student recognizes no visual references but hesitates, hoping they’ll appear
  2. Communication First: Student attempts to call ATC before initiating climb
  3. Checklist Fixation: Student tries to read missed approach checklist before adding power
  4. Navigation Setup: Student tries to reprogram GPS or set up missed approach course before climbing

Teaching the Immediate Action Concept:

“Missed approach is a memory item, not a decision item.”

Once the determination is made that missed approach is required, execution is immediate:

  1. Power — Collective smoothly to climb power
  2. Pitch — Attitude for climb airspeed
  3. Pedals — Coordinate
  4. Track — Turn to missed approach course

No delay. No hesitation. These are reflex actions.

Building the Reflex:

Repetition Training: Practice missed approaches at every approach until the sequence is automatic:

Chair Flying: Student sits in helicopter (or simulator) and practices missed approach:

Surprise Scenarios: During approach practice, instructor unexpectedly calls for missed approach:

Student must execute immediately regardless of where they are in the approach.

Measuring Promptness:

Quantify “prompt” for students:

If student takes >5 seconds from decision to power application, they’re hesitating—needs more practice.

Common Errors: Failure to Make the Required Report to ATC

Error Description: Student initiates missed approach but fails to notify ATC, or delays notification causing ATC to issue conflicting clearances.

Consequences:

Teaching the Communication Priority:

Aviate, Navigate, Communicate — in that order.

However, the missed approach call is high-priority communication. It should occur within 5-10 seconds of initiating the missed approach, as soon as:

  1. Aircraft is in a positive climb
  2. Heading is stable toward missed approach course
  3. Basic control is established

Standard Phraseology:

Teach students exact words to use (reduces workload, prevents fumbling):

Initial Call: “[Callsign], missed approach”

ATC Response Expected:

Follow-Up (if applicable):

If No ATC Response:

Teach students escalation procedure:

  1. Continue published missed approach
  2. Repeat call after 10-15 seconds: “Approach, Helicopter 345, missed approach, request instructions”
  3. If still no response, try tower frequency (if applicable) or departure frequency
  4. If complete communication failure, squawk 7600 and follow 91.185 procedures

Scenario Training:

Instructor plays ATC during approach practice:

Common Student Errors in Communication:

  1. Requesting Instead of Declaring: “Approach, can we do a missed approach?” — Wrong. Pilot declares: “Missed approach.”

  2. Over-Explaining: “Approach, we didn’t see the runway so we’re going missed and climbing now…” — Wrong. Use standard phraseology: “Missed approach.”

  3. Waiting for Instructions: Student climbs but doesn’t call ATC, waiting to be told what to do — Wrong. Pilot must report, ATC responds.

  4. Wrong Frequency: Student calls ground or CTAF instead of approach — Teach students to identify correct frequency before approach begins.

Common Errors: Failure to Comply with the Missed Approach Procedure

Error Description: Student climbs but flies wrong heading, wrong altitude, or skips portions of the published missed approach.

Common Non-Compliance Scenarios:

  1. Wrong Heading: Student climbs straight ahead instead of turning to published missed approach course

  2. Wrong Altitude: Student levels at pattern altitude (1000 AGL) instead of published missed approach altitude

  3. Skipping Holding: Student flies to missed approach fix but continues past it instead of entering hold as published

  4. Premature Turn: Student turns toward missed approach fix before reaching specified altitude

  5. Wrong Fix: Student navigates to wrong VOR or waypoint

Causes:

Teaching Compliance:

Step-by-Step Procedure Breakdown:

Teach students to break missed approach into phases:

Phase 1 — Initial Climb:

Phase 2 — Course Change:

Phase 3 — Holding:

Navigation Setup:

Teach students to pre-set missed approach navigation:

Monitoring Compliance:

During practice, instructor verifies:

If student cannot answer immediately → inadequate briefing, increased error likelihood.

ATC Coordination:

Teach when published procedure is replaced by ATC instructions:

Common Errors: Faulty Basic Instrument Flying Technique

Error Description: Student allows heading, altitude, or airspeed to deviate significantly during missed approach due to poor scan, control inputs, or fixation.

Why Missed Approach Degrades Instrument Skills:

  1. Task Saturation: Multiple tasks competing for attention (fly, navigate, communicate)
  2. Stress Response: Unexpected missed approach triggers adrenaline, narrows focus
  3. Control Transitions: Shift from descent to climb requires different control inputs/scan
  4. Configuration Changes: Power, pitch, and heading all change simultaneously
  5. Helicopter-Specific: No autopilot or trim to reduce workload

Common Instrument Errors During Missed Approach:

Heading Deviations:

Altitude Deviations:

Airspeed Deviations:

Coordination Errors:

Teaching Scan Discipline:

Primary Instrument Scan for Missed Approach:

Phase 1 — Initiation (First 5 Seconds):

Phase 2 — Established Climb (5-30 Seconds):

Phase 3 — Level-Off (30-60 Seconds):

Control Input Discipline:

Teach students to make smooth, measured inputs:

Power: Collective up 2-3 inches smoothly over 2 seconds (not slam to stop) Pitch: Cyclic back to climb attitude (5-8° nose up), hold Pedals: Anticipatory left pedal as collective rises, then adjust for coordination Bank: 15-20° maximum for turns (not 30°+ standard rate)

Chair Flying for Muscle Memory:

Student practices missed approach in parked helicopter:

  1. Instructor calls “Missed approach”
  2. Student executes control inputs: collective up, cyclic back, pedal left
  3. Student verbalizes scan: “Attitude, climb. Heading, straight. Altimeter, climbing. Airspeed, 60 knots.”
  4. Repeat 10 times until smooth, automatic

Error Correction During Flight:

When student makes instrument error during missed approach:

  1. Immediate Correction: “Watch your heading, you’re 20 degrees right”
  2. Stabilize: “Let’s level off here and stabilize before continuing”
  3. Diagnose: “What caused that deviation? Where was your scan?”
  4. Retry: “Let’s set up and try the missed approach again, focusing on heading control”

Standards for Acceptable Performance:

Teach students PTS standards for missed approach:

If student cannot maintain these during missed approach → more basic instrument training needed before continuing approaches.

Common Errors: Descent Below the MDA Prior to Initiating a Missed Approach

Error Description: Student descends below MDA without required visual references, attempting to “duck under” or hoping to acquire the runway visually.

Regulatory Violation: 14 CFR 91.175(c) — “No pilot may descend below the MDA unless the required visual references are distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot.”

Consequences:

Why Students Descend Below MDA:

  1. Vague Visual Contact: “I see something” (beacon, lights, terrain) and assume it’s sufficient
  2. Plan Continuation Bias: Mentally committed to landing, ignore regulatory limits
  3. Altitude Misread: Fixate on approach, fail to notice altimeter below MDA
  4. Pressure: Weather minimums, fuel state, passenger pressure to complete landing
  5. Inadequate Training: Never practiced holding MDA precisely for extended period

Teaching MDA Discipline:

“MDA is a Brick Wall, Not a Suggestion”

Use strong language: “Descending below MDA without visual references isn’t ‘aggressive flying’ or ‘getting the job done.’ It’s a violation that kills pilots. Treat MDA like the ground—because it might be.”

Technique for Holding MDA:

Teach students to establish level flight 50 feet above MDA, then slowly descend to MDA:

Positive Indication Required:

Train students to verbalize visual reference acquisition:

“I have the approach lights in sight” → May descend toward runway “I have the runway threshold in sight” → May descend toward runway “I see a glow ahead” → NOT sufficient, maintain MDA

Time at MDA:

Non-precision approaches may require 30-60 seconds of flight at MDA before MAP. Students must be comfortable holding altitude precisely:

Practice: Fly 2-3 miles at MDA, ±20 feet, while looking for runway environment. This builds tolerance for the “uncomfortable” sensation of flying low IMC.

Scenario Training:

Scenario 1: Fly approach to MDA, runway covered (foggles/hood view restrictor). Student must hold MDA until MAP, then execute missed approach—no descent permitted.

Scenario 2: Fly approach to MDA, only beacon visible. Student must determine beacon is insufficient visual reference and execute missed approach—no descent permitted.

Scenario 3: Fly approach to MDA, approach lights visible. Student may descend below MDA toward threshold. Then, lights obscured—student must immediately execute missed approach.

Error Demonstration:

Show student the consequences:

Debriefing Questions:

After student descends below MDA in training:

Strong message: Descent below MDA is non-negotiable. If you can’t see the runway environment per 91.175, you execute the missed approach. Period.

Uses of the MFD and Other Graphical Navigational Displays

Teaching Point: Modern glass cockpits and GPS navigators provide significant situational awareness during missed approaches, but students must understand their capabilities and limitations.

Multi-Function Display (MFD) Capabilities:

  1. Synthetic Vision (SVS): Displays terrain, obstacles, and runway environment graphically

    • Use: Enhances obstacle awareness during missed approach climb
    • Limitation: NOT a substitute for visual references per 91.175; cannot legally descend below MDA using SVS alone

  2. Moving Map Display: Shows aircraft position relative to missed approach course, holding fixes, and airspace

    • Use: Confirms proper tracking to missed approach fix, holding pattern entry
    • Limitation: Requires GPS signal; subject to RAIM outages or interference

  3. Terrain Awareness (HTAWS/TAWS): Alerts to terrain proximity during climb

    • Use: Provides additional obstacle warning margin
    • Limitation: Nuisance alerts common during low-altitude approaches; pilots may become desensitized

  4. Traffic Display (ADS-B/TIS-B): Shows nearby IFR and VFR traffic

    • Use: Enhances collision avoidance during missed approach
    • Limitation: Not all aircraft equipped; VFR traffic may not appear

GPS Navigator Functions:

Flight Plan Missed Approach:

Modern GPS navigators (GTN 750, G1000, etc.) automatically sequence to missed approach:

Teaching Caution: Autopilot use during missed approach reduces workload BUT:

Recommended Practice: Hand-fly at least 50% of missed approaches to maintain proficiency.

Graphical Missed Approach Display:

GPS displays show:

Use During Missed Approach:

  1. Course Confirmation: Quick glance at map confirms correct turn direction
  2. Holding Entry: Map displays holding pattern, helps visualize entry (parallel, teardrop, direct)
  3. Fix Identification: Distance to MAHF shown digitally, no mental math required
  4. Traffic Awareness: Cross-check traffic display for conflicting aircraft

Scan Integration:

Teach students to integrate MFD into instrument scan without fixation:

Primary Scan: Attitude, heading, altitude, airspeed (flight instruments) Secondary Scan: MFD map, GPS course deviation, traffic

Timing: Quick 1-2 second glance at MFD every 10-15 seconds. Do NOT stare at moving map for extended periods—this is how pilots lose altitude/heading control.

Limitations and Failures:

GPS Signal Loss:

Database Issues:

Workload During Activation:

Teaching Technique:

Demonstration Flight:

  1. Fly approach with MFD traffic and terrain displays enabled
  2. Execute missed approach, show student traffic display updating, terrain display showing climb clearance
  3. Demonstrate GPS sequencing to MAHF, moving map guidance
  4. Then, repeat approach with MFD turned off or covered—student must execute missed approach using conventional instruments only
  5. Debrief: “The MFD enhances situational awareness, but you must be able to fly the missed approach without it.”

Scenario: Glass Cockpit Failure:

During approach, instructor simulates PFD/MFD failure:

CFII Candidate Teaching Skill:

The CFII candidate must teach students:

Completion Standard for MFD Knowledge:

Student can explain:

  1. What information the MFD provides during missed approach
  2. How to activate missed approach on their GPS navigator
  3. Limitations of GPS and graphical displays
  4. Backup procedures if MFD fails during missed approach

Schedule

SegmentTopicDuration
Instructor SetupPre-flight prep, materials review, PTS standards review10 min
Ground Instruction — Approach Chart AnalysisBrief pertinent chart information, missed approach procedure interpretation, climb gradients, holding30 min
Ground Instruction — Conditions & InitiationConditions requiring missed approach, 91.175 visual references, COPA initiation sequence, helicopter-specific technique30 min
Ground Instruction — ATC & ComplianceRequired ATC reports, phraseology, published vs. alternate procedures, “unable” notifications, checklist procedures20 min
Ground Instruction — Positive Control & Common ErrorsImportance of positive aircraft control, common student errors with correction techniques, MFD/GPS use30 min
BreakReview materials, candidate questions10 min
Chair Flying ExerciseCandidate demonstrates teaching missed approach initiation using parked helicopter or simulator, narrates control inputs and scan, practices error correction coaching20 min
Flight Demonstration — Candidate TeachesCandidate demonstrates and teaches missed approach procedure (minimum 3 iterations): published missed, ATC-modified missed, unstable approach recognition60 min
Post-Flight DebriefReview performance, error analysis, completion standards assessment, PTS correlation20 min
Total230 min (3.8 hours)

Equipment

Required References

Training Materials

Visual Aids

Aircraft/Simulator Requirements

Administrative Materials

Instructor Actions

The CFII candidate demonstrates the ability to teach helicopter missed approach procedures by:

Pre-Flight Ground Instruction:

  1. Presents missed approach scenario and learning objectives: “Today you’ll learn to recognize when a missed approach is required, execute it precisely, and maintain positive aircraft control throughout. By the end, you’ll meet PTS standards of ±10° heading, ±100 feet altitude, ±10 knots airspeed during missed approach.”

  2. Explains pertinent information on instrument approach charts using actual approach plates:

    • Identifies the three locations of missed approach information (procedure text, profile view, planview depiction)
    • Demonstrates how to brief the missed approach: climb altitude, course, fix, holding pattern
    • Calculates climb gradient requirements using sample approach with 350’/NM gradient: “At 80 knots groundspeed, you need 467 feet per minute climb—can your helicopter do that at today’s density altitude and weight?”
    • Points out holding pattern details: direction of turns, leg length, maximum holding speed

  3. Teaches conditions requiring missed approach using 14 CFR 91.175:

    • Lists the six mandatory missed approach conditions with specific examples
    • Explains required visual references and demonstrates how to evaluate them: “You see a beacon—is that on the list in 91.175(c)? No. Execute missed approach.”
    • Uses scenario-based examples: “You’re at MDA, you see approach lights. You descend 30 feet and lose them. What’s your action?” (Student response: immediate missed approach)

  4. Demonstrates COPA initiation sequence using chair-flying in parked helicopter:

    • Sits in helicopter, narrates and physically executes: “Missed approach. Collective smoothly up—watch torque. Cyclic back—climb attitude for 60 knots. Left pedal—counter the torque. Heading straight—verify on heading indicator.”
    • Explains helicopter-specific challenges: power-induced yaw, lack of trim, workload during single-pilot IFR
    • Shows common error: adding power without pedal input, helicopter yaws 30° right

  5. Explains ATC communication requirements:

    • Writes phraseology on whiteboard: “[Callsign], missed approach”
    • Demonstrates priority: “Aviate first—establish climb. Navigate second—turn to missed approach course. Communicate third—within 10 seconds, report missed approach.”
    • Role-plays ATC response scenarios: clearance received, no response, alternate instructions

  6. Teaches common student errors using error-analysis method:

    • Describes error: “Student descends below MDA without visual references”
    • Explains consequence: “Loss of obstacle clearance, regulatory violation, reduced safety margin”
    • Demonstrates correction: “Brief MDA as a hard altitude. Call it out: ‘Approaching MDA, 100 to go, 50 to go, at MDA—level.’ Practice holding MDA precisely for 30-60 seconds.”
    • Uses repetition: explains 7 common errors listed in PTS, correction technique for each

  7. Demonstrates MFD and GPS use during missed approach:

    • Shows GPS missed approach activation procedure on aircraft avionics
    • Explains moving map display: course guidance, distance to MAHF, holding pattern depiction
    • Points out limitations: “GPS can fail. You must be able to fly this missed approach using VOR or dead reckoning if needed.”
    • Shows traffic and terrain displays, explains how they enhance situational awareness

Flight Demonstration and Teaching:

  1. Demonstrates missed approach execution while narrating teaching points:

    • Flies approach to MDA, clearly announces: “At MDA, no runway in sight, executing missed approach”
    • Executes COPA sequence while verbalizing: “Power—climb power set, 23 inches. Pitch—climb attitude, 60 knots. Pedals—coordinated flight, centered ball. Altimeter—positive rate, 300 feet per minute climbing.”
    • Reports to ATC: “Approach, Helicopter 345, missed approach”
    • Complies with published procedure: climbs to assigned altitude, turns to missed approach course, tracks to holding fix
    • Demonstrates instrument scan: “Primary instruments during initiation—attitude for pitch, heading indicator, altimeter for climb verification, airspeed for 60 knots.”
    • Maintains PTS standards: heading ±5° (demonstrates buffer beyond PTS ±10°), altitude ±50 feet, airspeed ±5 knots

  2. Simulates common student errors and demonstrates correction:

    • Error #1: Delays missed approach initiation—descends 100 feet below MDA before starting climb
      • Stops, debriefs: “I descended below MDA. What should I have done? Initiated missed approach at MDA. Let’s repeat this approach, and I’ll execute missed approach promptly at MDA.”
    • Error #2: Adds power but forgets left pedal—helicopter yaws right
      • Corrects: “I added power without left pedal—I’m 20° right of course. Correction: as collective comes up, left pedal simultaneously. Let me demonstrate again.”
    • Error #3: Fails to report missed approach to ATC
      • Stops after 15 seconds: “I climbed and turned, but I didn’t tell ATC. That’s a critical error. They think I landed. Let me repeat, this time reporting within 10 seconds.”

  3. Teaches alternate missed approach scenarios:

    • ATC-modified missed approach: “If the tower says ‘climb runway heading to 2500, expect vectors,’ I’ll fly that instead of the published procedure. Let me demonstrate.”
    • Executes ATC-modified procedure, explains differences from published
    • Unable to comply: “If ATC assigns a climb gradient I can’t meet, I’ll respond: ‘Unable published climb gradient, request vectors.’ Let me show you how to calculate whether you can meet the gradient.”

  4. Coaches student performance during practice iterations:

    • Student flies approach, candidate evaluates decision-making: “Good call executing the missed approach at MDA—you didn’t have the runway environment.”
    • Provides real-time correction: “Your heading is drifting right 15°. Add left pedal. Cross-check heading indicator.”
    • Gives encouragement: “Excellent COPA sequence—smooth power, immediate pedal, good climb airspeed. That’s exactly what I’m looking for.”
    • Identifies pattern errors: “I notice you’re hesitating before adding power. Let’s do three more approaches, and I want immediate power application the moment you decide missed approach is needed.”

Post-Flight Debrief:

  1. Reviews student performance against PTS completion standards:

    • Checks knowledge: “Explain the conditions that require a missed approach.” (Student lists 6 conditions)
    • Checks skill: “You maintained heading within ±8°, altitude within ±75 feet, airspeed within ±7 knots on your last missed approach. That meets PTS standards of ±10°/±100 feet/±10 knots. Well done.”
    • Identifies deficiencies: “On your second approach, you descended 50 feet below MDA. That’s a critical error. What will you do differently next time?”

  2. Assigns practice items for continued improvement:

    • “For next lesson, chair-fly five missed approaches at home. Practice the COPA sequence until it’s automatic.”
    • “Review 14 CFR 91.175 and be prepared to explain the required visual references.”
    • “Calculate the climb gradient requirement for three different approaches in our area and determine if our helicopter can meet them at maximum gross weight.”

  3. Evaluates overall instructional effectiveness:

    • Asks student: “What part of the missed approach is still unclear?”
    • Observes student confidence: “You executed three missed approaches with improving precision. How comfortable do you feel with the procedure now?”
    • Determines readiness: “You’re meeting PTS standards consistently. We’ll continue practicing missed approaches on subsequent instrument flights until they’re automatic.”

Throughout the lesson, the CFII candidate demonstrates teaching ability by:

Student Actions

The student (evaluator or simulated student during practical test) demonstrates understanding and skill development by:

During Ground Instruction:

  1. Listens actively to CFII candidate’s explanation of missed approach procedures, asks clarifying questions about chart information, climb gradients, or holding patterns.

  2. Identifies the three locations of missed approach information on sample approach charts presented by the candidate.

  3. Calculates climb gradient requirements when given approach charts and aircraft performance data, determining whether the helicopter can meet published climb gradients at specified weights and density altitudes.

  4. Explains the six conditions requiring a missed approach after candidate instruction, demonstrating understanding of 14 CFR 91.175 visual reference requirements.

  5. Describes the COPA initiation sequence (Climb power, On airspeed, Pedals, Attitude) and explains the rationale for each step.

  6. Demonstrates chair-flying of missed approach procedure in parked helicopter under candidate’s supervision:

    • Physically moves collective up, cyclic back, left pedal input while verbalizing actions
    • Practices scan pattern: attitude indicator, heading indicator, altimeter, airspeed
    • Repeats sequence 5-10 times until movements become smooth and automatic

  7. Practices ATC phraseology for missed approach reporting, correctly stating: “[Callsign], missed approach” and responding to simulated ATC instructions.

  8. Analyzes common student errors presented by candidate, explaining why each error is hazardous and describing appropriate correction technique.

  9. Reviews MFD and GPS displays shown by candidate, identifying missed approach course, holding fix, and relevant navigation information.

During Flight Instruction:

  1. Observes candidate’s demonstration of missed approach execution, noting control inputs, scan pattern, and ATC communication timing.

  2. Asks questions during candidate demonstration: “Why did you add left pedal simultaneously with collective?” “When did you report missed approach to ATC?” “How did you determine the holding pattern entry?”

  3. Executes missed approach procedures under candidate supervision (minimum 3 iterations):

    • Flies instrument approach to MDA or MAP
    • Recognizes conditions requiring missed approach (no visual references, unstable approach, or as directed by candidate)
    • Initiates missed approach using COPA sequence: smooth collective to climb power, cyclic back for climb attitude, left pedal for coordination, verifies climb on altimeter
    • Reports to ATC (or candidate role-playing ATC): “Missed approach”
    • Complies with published or ATC-assigned missed approach procedure: climbs to assigned altitude, turns to specified heading or course, tracks to missed approach holding fix
    • Maintains aircraft control within PTS standards: heading ±10°, altitude ±100 feet, airspeed ±10 knots
    • Enters holding pattern at MAHF using appropriate entry (parallel, teardrop, or direct)

  4. Responds to candidate coaching during practice approaches:

    • Accepts real-time corrections: “You’re right, my heading drifted. I’ll add left pedal and cross-check the heading indicator.”
    • Self-corrects when errors are pointed out: “I see I descended below MDA. I’ll initiate the missed approach immediately at MDA on the next approach.”
    • Demonstrates improvement across iterations: first approach ±15° heading, second approach ±12°, third approach ±8°

  5. Simulates common errors when requested by candidate (for error demonstration purposes):

    • Delays missed approach initiation (candidate demonstrates prompt initiation correction)
    • Adds power without pedal input (candidate demonstrates coordinated power/pedal technique)
    • Fails to report missed approach (candidate demonstrates proper communication timing)

  6. Explains decision-making process during each approach:

    • “I reached MDA with no runway in sight, so I initiated missed approach.”
    • “I saw the approach lights but lost them after descending 20 feet, so I immediately executed missed approach.”
    • “My airspeed was fluctuating ±15 knots and sink rate exceeded 1000 fpm at 400 AGL, so I determined the approach was unstable and executed missed approach.”

  7. Uses MFD and GPS displays during missed approach execution:

    • Activates missed approach function on GPS navigator when directed
    • References moving map to confirm course to missed approach holding fix
    • Cross-checks traffic and terrain displays for situational awareness
    • Demonstrates ability to execute missed approach without GPS if candidate simulates GPS failure

During Post-Flight Debrief:

  1. Evaluates own performance against PTS standards:

    • “On my first missed approach, I maintained heading within ±12° and altitude within ±80 feet. On my third approach, I improved to ±7° heading and ±60 feet altitude.”
    • “I descended 40 feet below MDA on my second approach before recognizing the error. I need to work on holding MDA more precisely.”

  2. Asks clarifying questions about areas of difficulty:

    • “I’m still struggling with coordinating pedal input when adding climb power. Can we practice that more next flight?”
    • “How can I improve my scan to avoid altitude deviations during the climb?”

  3. Reviews completion standards with candidate and confirms understanding of areas requiring additional practice.

  4. Commits to practice assignments given by candidate (chair-flying, regulation review, climb gradient calculations).

Throughout the lesson, the student demonstrates engagement by:

Completion Standards

The lesson is complete when the CFII candidate meets PTS Task CFII.VIII.C standards by demonstrating instructional knowledge and teaching ability for helicopter missed approach procedures. Evaluation is based on the candidate’s ability to teach, not merely perform, the task.

Knowledge Standards (Ground Instruction):

The CFII candidate exhibits instructional knowledge by:

  1. Explaining all pertinent information on instrument approach charts related to missed approaches:

    • Accurately identifies missed approach procedure text, profile view depiction, and planview course
    • Correctly interprets climb altitudes, courses, fixes, and holding patterns
    • Calculates climb gradient requirements and determines aircraft capability
    • Teaches student how to brief missed approach procedure systematically

  2. Teaching the six conditions requiring a missed approach per 14 CFR 91.175:

    • Reaching MAP without required flight visibility
    • Reaching MAP without required visual references
    • Losing visual references after descending below MDA/DA
    • Unstable approach parameters
    • ATC-directed missed approach
    • Inability to make safe landing from approach
    • Clearly explains 91.175(c) required visual reference elements with specific examples

  3. Demonstrating proper missed approach initiation using COPA sequence:

    • Explains prompt application of climb power with smooth collective technique
    • Describes establishment of climb attitude for Vy airspeed
    • Teaches reduction of drag (airspeed transition, configuration)
    • Emphasizes simultaneous power and pedal coordination specific to helicopters
    • Explains acceptable altitude loss during transition (20-50 feet)

  4. Explaining required ATC reports:

    • Teaches proper phraseology: “[Callsign], missed approach”
    • Describes timing: within 10 seconds of initiation, after establishing climb
    • Explains priority: aviate, navigate, communicate
    • Teaches procedures if ATC does not respond

  5. Teaching compliance with published and alternate missed approach procedures:

    • Explains when published procedure is mandatory vs. when ATC may modify
    • Describes phases of missed approach (initial climb, course change, holding)
    • Teaches holding pattern entry techniques at MAHF
    • Explains coordination with ATC during missed approach

  6. Explaining notification requirements when unable to comply:

    • Teaches when and how to report “unable” to ATC
    • Explains climb gradient calculations and performance limitations
    • Describes phraseology for unable reports
    • Emphasizes professional decision-making and safety culture

  7. Teaching checklist procedures for missed approach:

    • Explains flow-then-verify concept
    • Describes immediate memory items (power, attitude, configuration)
    • Lists verify items (power settings, ATC report, navigation, fuel)
    • Teaches when to perform checklist (after stabilizing climb, not during initiation)

  8. Explaining importance of positive aircraft control:

    • Defines positive control: deliberate inputs, precise parameters, ahead of aircraft
    • Describes consequences of control loss: obstacle clearance, traffic conflicts, spatial disorientation
    • Teaches helicopter-specific challenges: torque effect, lack of trim, single-pilot workload
    • Explains acceptable PTS parameters: heading ±10°, altitude ±100 feet, airspeed ±10 knots

  9. Teaching all seven common errors listed in PTS:

    • For each error: describes the error, explains consequences, demonstrates correction technique
    • Failure to have approach chart knowledge → structured briefing technique
    • Failure to recognize conditions → 91.175 visual reference checklist
    • Failure to promptly initiate → COPA memory sequence, reflex training
    • Failure to report ATC → communication priority, 10-second rule
    • Failure to comply with procedure → phase-by-phase breakdown, navigation setup
    • Faulty instrument technique → scan discipline, control input smoothness
    • Descent below MDA → “brick wall” concept, altitude callouts, holding practice

  10. Explaining MFD and graphical display use:

    • Describes capabilities: moving map, terrain, traffic, synthetic vision
    • Teaches limitations: database currency, GPS signal dependency, not substitute for visual references
    • Explains scan integration: quick glances, no fixation
    • Describes backup procedures if displays fail

Skill Standards (Flight Instruction):

The CFII candidate demonstrates teaching ability by:

  1. Executing missed approach procedures while simultaneously explaining from an instructional standpoint:
    • Narrates decision-making: “I’ve reached MDA without visual references, so I’m initiating missed

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