NORMAL AND ABNORMAL PROCEDURES

Objective

The student will demonstrate comprehensive knowledge and proper use of helicopter systems, subsystems, and devices as required for ATP operations. The student will explain normal and abnormal procedures for powerplant, fuel, electrical, hydraulic, environmental, fire detection/extinguishing, navigation/avionics, automatic flight control, electronic flight instruments, flight controls, anti-ice/deice, emergency equipment, and loss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE) conditions appropriate to their helicopter type. Upon completion, the student will meet the knowledge and skill standards of FAA-S-ACS-ATP AT.IX.A.

Content

Introduction to ATP-Level Systems Knowledge

At the ATP level, you must possess comprehensive working knowledge of every system in your helicopter—not just normal operations, but abnormal procedures, system interactions, limitations, and failure modes. This goes beyond commercial certificate knowledge. ATP operations often involve turbine helicopters with complex integrated systems, and you’re expected to operate at professional airline pilot standards for systems management, decision-making, and crew coordination even in single-pilot operations.

Key Teaching Points:

• ATP standards require immediate recall and proper action for all normal and abnormal procedures
• Systems knowledge must be type-specific and current to the POH/RFM
• Every abnormal procedure must be linked to its underlying system logic
• Understanding system interdependencies prevents cascading failures
• Professional operators know the difference between memory items and checklist items

Powerplant Systems

Normal Procedures:

• Engine start sequence (hot start, hung start, false start recognition)
• Power assurance checks (power available vs power required)
• Torque, N1/N2/Nr coordination and governing systems
• Normal operating ranges and limitations
• Turbine engine handling (rapid temperature changes, compressor stalls)
• Single-engine vs multi-engine operations and OEI ratings

Abnormal Procedures:

• Engine failure recognition and immediate actions (memory items)
• Compressor stall recognition and recovery
• Oil pressure/temperature abnormalities
• Fuel control unit malfunctions
• Governor failures (over-speed, under-speed)
• Chip detector illuminations
• Vibration analysis and limitations

Analogy: “Think of a turbine engine like a high-performance athlete. It needs proper warm-up, operates best in its sweet spot, and giving it ice-cold water after a sprint is a bad idea. Rapid temperature changes damage turbines just like they’d hurt an athlete.”

Fuel System

Normal Procedures:

• Fuel quantity and usable fuel verification
• Boost pump operation and backup systems
• Fuel balancing in multi-tank configurations
• Gravity feed vs pressure feed systems
• Fuel temperature monitoring in turbine aircraft

Abnormal Procedures:

• Fuel pump failures (boost pump, transfer pump)
• Fuel imbalance conditions and crossfeed procedures
• Low fuel pressure warnings
• Fuel contamination indications
• Vapor lock and hot fuel handling in turbines

Electrical System

Normal Procedures:

• Generator/alternator load management
• Battery limitations and charging profiles
• Bus tie configurations and load shedding
• Essential vs non-essential bus architecture
• Inverter operation for AC-powered systems

Abnormal Procedures:

• Generator failure and load shedding priorities
• Battery-only operations and endurance calculations
• Bus tie failures and electrical isolation
• Over-voltage and under-voltage conditions
• Multiple generator failures in twin-engine aircraft

Key Point: Modern turbine helicopters often have digital systems entirely dependent on electrical power. Know your battery endurance for critical systems and prioritize avionics bus power.

Hydraulic System

Normal Procedures:

• Hydraulic system pressure ranges and accumulator function
• Normal system degradation vs failure conditions
• Flight control boost vs full manual control
• Servo transparency and force feedback

Abnormal Procedures:

• Hydraulic failure recognition (increased control forces)
• Hydraulic-off procedures and control limitations
• Low pressure warnings and emergency shutdown
• Hydraulic fluid quantity and temperature abnormalities
• Flying qualities changes without hydraulic boost

Teaching Point: Many turbine helicopters are unflyable or severely limited without hydraulics. Know the difference between servo-assisted controls and fully power controls. Some helicopters require immediate landing following hydraulic failure.

Environmental Systems

Normal Procedures:

• Cabin heating and ventilation system operation
• Air conditioning systems in turbine helicopters (bleed air vs electric)
• Pressurization systems (if applicable to type)
• Defog and demist system operation
• Smoke removal procedures

Abnormal Procedures:

• Overheat conditions and source isolation
• Air conditioning failures during IFR operations
• Smoke and fume elimination procedures
• Pressurization failures (if applicable)
• Carbon monoxide detection and action

Fire Detection and Extinguishing Systems

Normal Procedures:

• Fire detection loop testing (if equipped)
• Fire extinguisher bottle status verification
• Overheat vs fire indication differences
• Test procedures per manufacturer requirements

Abnormal Procedures:

• Engine fire on ground (start fire) — immediate shutdown, extinguisher use
• Engine fire in flight — memory items, shutdown, forced landing considerations
• Electrical fire recognition and isolation
• False fire warnings and system testing
• Fire extinguisher discharge procedures and limitations

Memory Items Emphasis: Engine fire procedures are always memory items. “Stop the source, cut the fuel, kill the ignition, discharge the bottle if warranted.”

Navigation and Avionics Systems

Normal Procedures:

• Integrated avionics initialization and preflight verification
• GPS/FMS navigation system management
• VOR/ILS/GPS approach mode selections
• Autopilot mode selections and engagement criteria
• Multi-function display (MFD) configuration management
• Traffic awareness systems (TAS/TCAS if equipped)

Abnormal Procedures:

• GPS loss or degraded signal procedures
• Primary flight display (PFD) failures and reversionary modes
• Navigation system discrepancies and cross-checking
• Autopilot disconnects and malfunctions
• Communication radio failures
• Avionics cooling failures

ATP-Level Expectation: You must maintain proficiency with all installed systems and understand reversionary modes. Glass cockpit failures require immediate recognition and mode changes without hesitation.

Automatic Flight Control Systems (AFCS)

Normal Procedures:

• Autopilot engagement criteria (altitude, airspeed, configuration)
• Attitude hold, altitude hold, heading select, navigation modes
• Coupled approach procedures (if equipped)
• Flight director operation and symbology
• Trim systems and autopilot interaction
• Stability augmentation systems (SAS) vs full autopilot

Abnormal Procedures:

• Autopilot disconnect conditions (forced and automatic)
• Runaway trim recognition and cutout procedures
• SAS failures and degraded handling qualities
• Autopilot malfunction during coupled approach
• Manual reversion procedures from autopilot failures

Key Point: Many turbine helicopters have sophisticated AFCS with multiple redundancy levels. Know which failures downgrade to basic SAS, which require manual flight, and what handling changes occur.

Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS)

Normal Procedures:

• Primary and multi-function display management
• Reversionary display modes (PFD to MFD and vice versa)
• Engine indication and crew alerting system (EICAS) interpretation
• Synthetic vision and terrain awareness system operation
• Display brightness and contrast management

Abnormal Procedures:

• Primary flight display failure and reversionary modes
• Standby instrument reliance procedures
• Partial display failures (AHRS, ADC, magnetometer)
• Display cooling failures and temperature limitations
• Backup battery operation for standby instruments

Flight Control Systems

Normal Procedures:

• Cyclic, collective, and pedal control authority verification
• Trim system operation (if equipped)
• Servo and mixer operation in fly-by-wire systems
• Control friction adjustments
• Force feedback characteristics

Abnormal Procedures:

• Jammed or restricted flight controls
• Control system failures in NOTAR helicopters (if applicable)
• Tail rotor control failures (conventional helicopters)
• Trim system runaways
• Servo hardovers and disconnects

Anti-Ice and Deice Systems

Normal Procedures:

• Engine inlet anti-ice operation (bleed air or electric)
• Pitot heat activation criteria
• Rotor blade deice systems (if equipped)
• Windscreen anti-ice/defrost operation
• Preventative ice protection activation

Abnormal Procedures:

• Anti-ice system failures during inadvertent IMC
• Ice accumulation recognition and immediate action
• Pitot-static system icing and alternate source use
• Engine inlet ice ingestion risks
• Emergency egress from icing conditions

Critical Point: Most helicopters are not certified for flight into known icing. Anti-ice systems are for inadvertent encounter only. Recognize conditions, activate systems, exit immediately.

Helicopter and Personal Emergency Equipment

Normal Procedures:

• Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) operation and testing
• Life vest and raft stowage and inspection
• Fire extinguisher inspection and operation
• Emergency exit operation and egress procedures
• Survival kit contents and location

Abnormal Procedures:

• Ditching procedures and flotation system activation (if equipped)
• Emergency egress after water landing
• Underwater egress procedures
• Emergency equipment deployment
• ELT activation and verification

Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness (LTE)

Conditions Conducive to LTE:

• Weathervane (right quartering tailwind, 120°–240° relative)
• Main rotor disc vortex interference (210°–330° winds, 10–30 kts)
• Tail rotor vortex ring state (slow/zero groundspeed, left pedal near limit)

Recognition:

• Uncommanded yaw rate increase
• Full pedal deflection required with no yaw stopping
• High power required with left pedal near limit
• Low-speed hover or taxi with gusty/variable winds

Recovery Procedures:

• Reduce power immediately (if altitude permits)
• Increase airspeed (cyclic forward)
• Descend if altitude permits
• Do not attempt to “power through” with more collective

Prevention:

• Avoid critical wind azimuths in high-power conditions
• Maintain airspeed awareness during approach and departure
• Perform hovering turns to the right (into decreasing pedal)
• Avoid downwind takeoffs and landings when power limited

Analogy: “LTE is like hydroplaning in a car. Once you’ve lost directional control, adding more ‘power’ by pressing the brake harder makes it worse. You have to unload the system—reduce collective, gain airspeed, regain control.”

Type-Specific Systems

This section must be customized to the specific helicopter type the ATP candidate operates. Ensure coverage of:

• FADEC systems (if applicable)
• Rotor brake systems
• Floatation gear or emergency float deployment
• Cargo hook systems and load management
• Searchlight and FLIR systems (if applicable)
• Auxiliary fuel systems and range extension
• Environmental control specific to type
• Any supplemental type certificate (STC) systems installed

Systems Integration and Crew Resource Management

ATP-Level Professional Standards:

• System failures rarely occur in isolation—understand interdependencies
• Avionics, electrical, and hydraulic systems often cascade
• Single-pilot resource management requires prioritized decision-making
• “Aviate, Navigate, Communicate”—fly the helicopter first, then work the problem
• Checklist discipline under pressure is non-negotiable
• Declare an emergency early if system failures compromise safety margins

Scenario-Based Systems Management: Present the student with compound failures:

• “Generator failure at night IMC—what systems do you lose, what’s your endurance, what’s your plan?”
• “Hydraulic failure departing a confined area—can you continue the departure or must you land immediately?”
• “Engine oil pressure drops to yellow arc with coinciding chip light—memory items?”

Schedule

Equipment

Required References:

• FAA-S-ACS-ATP (ATP Helicopter ACS)
• FAA-H-8083-21B (Rotorcraft Flying Handbook)
• Helicopter-specific Pilot Operating Handbook/Rotorcraft Flight Manual (POH/RFM)
• Helicopter-specific Flight Manual Supplement for installed equipment
• Quick Reference Handbook (QRH) or Emergency Procedures Checklist for type
• 14 CFR Part 61.159(b) (ATP helicopter requirements)
• 14 CFR Part 91 (General Operating Rules)

Training Materials:

• Whiteboard or large flip chart for system diagrams
• Helicopter systems posters or diagrams for type
• Sample EICAS/ECAM pages (if applicable to type)
• Emergency checklist placards
• Scenario cards for compound system failures
• Cockpit poster or photograph of instrument panel for reference

Visual Aids:

• Electrical system schematic for student’s helicopter type
• Hydraulic system flow diagram
• Fuel system diagram with pumps, valves, and tanks labeled
• Fire suppression system diagram
• LTE wind azimuth diagram (critical wind conditions)

Equipment (if available):

• Helicopter cockpit poster for systems identification
• Sample circuit breaker panel photograph
• Fire extinguisher for demonstration
• Emergency equipment samples (ELT, life vest)

Instructor Actions

1. Begin the lesson by explaining that ATP-level systems knowledge requires immediate recall, decision-making under pressure, and comprehensive understanding of normal and abnormal procedures for all systems. State that this lesson covers the knowledge foundation, with practical demonstration to follow.

2. Review the student’s specific helicopter type and confirm which systems, subsystems, and devices are installed. Ensure the current POH/RFM is available and all emergency procedures are current. Ask: “Walk me through your preflight for systems checks—what are you looking for and why?”

3. Powerplant discussion: Question the student on engine start abnormalities. “You’re starting the engine and N1 climbs normally, but you see no corresponding TGT rise. What’s happening?” (Hung start.) “What are your immediate actions?” Discuss normal operating limitations, power available checks, and OEI ratings if applicable.

4. Fuel system discussion: Ask the student to draw their helicopter’s fuel system on the whiteboard—tanks, pumps, valves, and flow. “Your low fuel pressure light illuminates in cruise flight. Walk me through your analysis and actions.” Discuss boost pump failures, crossfeed procedures, and fuel balancing.

5. Electrical system discussion: Draw the electrical bus architecture together. “Your primary generator fails at night IMC. What systems have you lost? What’s your battery endurance for essential systems? What’s your plan?” Teach load shedding priorities and essential bus protection.

6. Hydraulic system discussion: Explain the difference between servo-assist and full power controls. “You experience a sudden increase in cyclic and collective forces. What has failed? What are your immediate actions? Can you continue to your destination?” Address hydraulic-off handling qualities and limitations.

7. Environmental systems: Discuss heating, air conditioning, and smoke removal. “You smell smoke in the cockpit. Walk me through your immediate actions.” Teach the systematic approach: identify source, isolate system, ventilate cabin, land as soon as practicable.

8. Fire detection and extinguishing: Review memory items for engine fire on ground vs in flight. “Engine fire light illuminates during run-up. Go.” (Throttle idle, fuel off, fire extinguisher if needed, evacuate.) Emphasize that engine fire in flight is always a land-immediately situation—no troubleshooting.

9. Navigation and avionics systems: Question the student on their integrated avionics suite. “You’re on a GPS approach and get ‘GPS LOI’ (loss of integrity). What now?” Discuss reversionary modes, approach continuation criteria, and alternate navigation sources.

10. Automatic flight control systems: Ask the student to explain their autopilot modes and engagement criteria. “You’re hand-flying at 500 feet AGL and engage the autopilot—it immediately pitches nose-up aggressively. What do you do?” (Disconnect immediately, do not re-engage, land and troubleshoot.) Discuss runaway trim and autopilot malfunction recognition.

11. EFIS discussion: Cover primary flight display failures. “Your PFD goes dark. What’s your scan now?” Teach reversionary mode activation and standby instrument reliance. Emphasize that partial EFIS failures (AHRS only, ADC only) require different responses.

12. Flight controls: Discuss control system architecture for the student’s type. For conventional helicopters, ask: “What happens if your tail rotor driveshaft fails?” (Immediate autorotation, land immediately.) For NOTAR, discuss thruster and fan failures.

13. Anti-ice systems: Review when to activate pitot heat, engine inlet anti-ice, and rotor blade systems (if equipped). “You’re IMC and notice ice forming on the windscreen. What are your immediate actions?” (Activate all anti-ice systems, exit icing conditions immediately, declare emergency if ice accumulates.) Reinforce that helicopters are not ice-capable.

14. Emergency equipment: Walk through ELT operation, life vest donning, flotation system (if equipped), fire extinguisher use, and survival kit contents. “You’re ditching—brief the procedure start to finish.” (Mayday call, activate flotation gear if equipped, secure loose items, level attitude at impact, egress immediately with equipment.)

15. Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness: Use the LTE wind azimuth diagram. Explain weathervane, main rotor disc vortex interference, and tail rotor vortex ring state. “You’re hovering at high gross weight, 10 knots of wind from 240 degrees. You add collective and the helicopter begins to yaw right uncommanded. What’s happening?” (Weathervane LTE.) “What do you do?” (Reduce power immediately, increase airspeed, descend if able.) Emphasize that increasing power makes it worse.

16. Scenario 1: Present a compound failure: “You’re at night, 800 feet AGL, and your generator fails, followed 30 seconds later by a hydraulic low-pressure warning. What systems have you lost? What’s your plan?” Evaluate the student’s prioritization, decision-making, and procedure execution.

17. Scenario 2: “You’re on final approach and see the engine oil pressure drop into the red with a chip light illumination. What are your immediate actions?” (Continue approach, land immediately, do not attempt go-around, shut down on landing.) Discuss why increasing power with impending engine failure is catastrophic.

18. Scenario 3: “You’re IMC in cruise when your PFD fails and you lose the attitude indicator. Your autopilot disconnects. What’s your immediate scan?” (Standby instruments or MFD reversionary mode.) “Can you continue IFR?” (Depends on equipment—if standby instruments are operative, yes, but partial panel.)

19. Emphasize ATP-level decision-making: “At this level, you’re expected to know every system cold. The check ride will be type-specific. The evaluator can ask about any system, any limitation, any abnormal procedure. Chair-fly these scenarios in your mind using your helicopter’s actual checklists.”

20. Assign homework: “Between now and our next lesson, I want you to create flashcards for every abnormal procedure in your QRH. Quiz yourself on memory items. Walk through system failures mentally and talk through your actions out loud. Next session, we’ll demonstrate these procedures in the helicopter or simulator.”

21. Review completion standards from the ATP ACS AT.IX.A: The student must demonstrate comprehensive knowledge and proper use of helicopter systems and execute normal and abnormal procedures accurately and efficiently. Preview that the practical demonstration will involve performing selected procedures in the helicopter or simulator.

Student Actions

1. Actively participate in the systems discussion by answering questions, drawing diagrams, and explaining procedures in their own words.

2. Reference the helicopter’s POH/RFM throughout the lesson to verify normal operating parameters, limitations, and abnormal procedures for each system discussed.

3. Draw system schematics on the whiteboard when asked (fuel system, electrical system) to demonstrate understanding of system architecture and component interactions.

4. Verbally walk through abnormal procedures for system failures, demonstrating memory item recall and checklist discipline.

5. Answer scenario-based questions by analyzing the situation, prioritizing actions, and explaining decision-making rationale consistent with ATP-level professionalism.

6. Ask clarifying questions when system interactions are unclear or when abnormal procedures differ from previous aircraft experience.

7. Take notes on critical memory items, system limitations, and key teaching points for later review and study.

8. Identify specific systems in their helicopter type that require additional study or clarification before the practical demonstration session.

9. Review emergency equipment location, operation, and usage procedures, and be prepared to demonstrate knowledge during the practical portion.

10. Complete homework assignment by creating flashcards for abnormal procedures, studying memory items, and chair-flying system failure scenarios using the actual helicopter’s checklists.

Completion Standards

The student demonstrates ATP-level knowledge and understanding of helicopter systems, subsystems, and devices as outlined in FAA-S-ACS-ATP AT.IX.A. Completion standards for this lesson include:

1. Knowledge Standards:

   • Student explains the normal operating procedures, parameters, and limitations for powerplant, fuel, electrical, hydraulic, environmental, fire detection/extinguishing, navigation/avionics, AFCS, EFIS, flight controls, anti-ice/deice, and emergency equipment systems specific to their helicopter type.
   • Student accurately describes abnormal procedures for system failures and malfunctions, including immediate memory items and subsequent checklist actions.
   • Student demonstrates comprehensive understanding of system interactions and cascading failure modes.
   • Student explains loss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE) conditions, recognition, recovery, and prevention techniques consistent with FAA-H-8083-21B guidance.
   • Student references specific POH/RFM procedures, limitations, and emergency checklists accurately and without prompting.

2. Skill Standards (Verbal Demonstration during Ground Training):

   • Student verbally demonstrates proper use of systems and subsystems by accurately explaining procedures, switch positions, and system management techniques.
   • Student correctly prioritizes actions during compound system failures, demonstrating ATP-level decision-making and crew resource management.
   • Student recalls memory items for critical failures (engine fire, hydraulic failure, etc.) immediately and without reference to written materials.
   • Student explains checklist discipline and when to use memory items vs. written checklists during time-critical situations.

3. Scenario Performance Standards:

   • When presented with system failure scenarios, student analyzes the situation, identifies affected systems, determines appropriate actions, and explains decision-making rationale in a logical sequence.
   • Student demonstrates ability to manage multiple system failures simultaneously, maintaining aircraft control priorities (aviate, navigate, communicate).
   • Student explains when to declare an emergency based on system failure severity and operational limitations.

4. ATP-Level Professional Standards:

   • Student demonstrates comprehensive, immediate recall of systems knowledge without excessive reference to written materials (appropriate for ATP-level proficiency).
   • Student explains procedures with precision and accuracy consistent with professional airline pilot standards.
   • Student demonstrates understanding that ATP operations require zero-tolerance for procedural errors or incomplete systems knowledge.

5. Practical Demonstration Readiness:

   • Student is prepared to physically demonstrate selected normal and abnormal procedures in the helicopter or simulator during a follow-up practical session.
   • Student can locate and identify all systems, controls, circuit breakers, and emergency equipment in the cockpit.
   • Student demonstrates readiness for ATP practical test systems knowledge evaluation per ACS task AT.IX.A.

Note: This ground training lesson establishes the knowledge foundation. A subsequent practical demonstration session in the helicopter or simulator is required to complete the skill demonstration elements of ACS task AT.IX.A. The evaluator may examine any system, subsystem, or device during the ATP practical test, and the student must demonstrate comprehensive type-specific knowledge and proper procedures without hesitation.